Glossary

Abbreviations, endpoints and terms. Definitions are plain-language summaries; trials define their own endpoints and event rules, so check the paper when it matters.

≥CR rateComplete response or better rateendpoint: The proportion of people whose myeloma meets the response criteria for complete response or stringent complete response, as each trial defines them and at the time point each trial reports. It is not the same measure as a complete response on imaging.
17p deletionDeletion of the short arm of chromosome 17 (del(17p))term: Loss of a segment of chromosome 17p, the region that contains the TP53 gene.
1p/19q codeletionterm: Loss of the short arm of chromosome 1 and the long arm of chromosome 19 together in a tumour. In the 2021 WHO classification it is required, with an IDH mutation, for the diagnosis of oligodendroglioma.
2-hydroxyglutarateR(-)-2-hydroxyglutarate (2HG)term: A molecule produced by mutant IDH1 enzyme, which Dang and colleagues found at markedly raised levels in IDH1-mutant malignant gliomas.
28-week progression-free rateendpoint: The proportion of people who are alive and whose cancer has not progressed 28 weeks after randomisation. SURTIME reported it in place of progression-free survival because too few people joined the trial.
3-year recurrence rateendpoint: Estimated proportion of patients whose cancer had recurred by three years.
5-year relative survivalendpoint: Five-year survival of a group of patients divided by the five-year survival expected in a matched general population (for example the same age, sex and year). A value near 100% means survival close to that of the general population.
7+3Cytarabine for 7 days plus an anthracycline for 3 daysterm: A standard intensive induction chemotherapy pattern for AML: cytarabine given by continuous infusion for seven days with an anthracycline such as daunorubicin or idarubicin on the first three days. Doses differ between regimens and trials.
Abdominal recurrence-free survivalAbdominal recurrence-free survival (investigator-assessed in STRASS)endpoint: Time from randomisation until a recurrence within the abdomen or death, whichever comes first; used for retroperitoneal sarcoma, where local and regional recurrence in the abdomen is the main failure pattern.
Ablation success rateendpoint: The percentage of patients in whom radioiodine has destroyed the thyroid remnant after surgery, judged several months later by imaging and thyroglobulin testing. Definitions of success differ between trials.
ABVDDoxorubicin, bleomycin, vinblastine, dacarbazineabbreviation: A four-drug combination chemotherapy regimen used for Hodgkin lymphoma.
Accelerated approvalterm: A US FDA pathway in which a drug can be approved on the basis of a surrogate or intermediate endpoint. The sponsor must then complete trials to verify and describe clinical benefit, and approval may be withdrawn if they do not. The FDA letters name this requirement 21 CFR 314.510 (drugs) or 21 CFR 601.41 (biologics).
ACSAmerican Cancer Societyabbreviation: A US voluntary health organisation that publishes cancer screening guidelines, including guidelines for colorectal cancer screening.
ACSAmerican Cancer Societyabbreviation: A US non-profit organisation that publishes cancer screening guidelines among other work.
Active monitoringterm: The term used in ProtecT for a policy of regular follow-up without immediate radical treatment. The protocol is described in the trial reports.
Active surveillanceterm: Following a prostate cancer with regular tests and offering radical treatment if there are signs of progression. Protocols differ between programmes and trials.
Active surveillanceterm: A planned schedule of clinic visits, tumour marker tests and imaging after the testis has been removed, in which further treatment is given only if the cancer returns.
Actuarial relapseendpoint: The estimated share of patients who have relapsed by a stated time, calculated with life-table methods. Whether deaths without relapse are treated as competing events is set by each study.
Acute grade 1-2 gastrointestinal toxicityendpoint: Proportion of women with mild or moderate (grade 1 to 2) bowel side effects measured at the end of radiotherapy.
ADCAntibody-drug conjugateabbreviation: A medicine in which an antibody that recognises a target on tumour cells is chemically linked to a cytotoxic drug.
Additional CT scan after an indeterminate resultendpoint: Proportion of screened participants who had at least one extra CT scan because an initial scan result was indeterminate.
Adenomaterm: A benign growth of glandular tissue, such as a polyp in the colon or rectum, that can develop into cancer.
ADEXAberrantly differentiated endocrine exocrineabbreviation: One of four expression-based subtypes of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma described by Bailey and colleagues in 2016.
Adherence to CT screeningendpoint: Average proportion of scheduled CT screening examinations that participants attended.
Adjuvantterm: Treatment given after the main treatment, here after surgery, to lower the chance that the cancer returns.
Adjuvantterm: Treatment given after surgery to lower the chance that the cancer returns.
Adjuvant chemotherapy useendpoint: The share of patients who received adjuvant chemotherapy.
ADTAndrogen-deprivation therapyabbreviation: Treatment that lowers testosterone or blocks its action to slow prostate cancer, by orchiectomy or by drugs such as LHRH agonists or GnRH antagonists.
AERAbsolute excess riskabbreviation: The difference between observed and expected events in a group, expressed per 10,000 person-years of follow-up. It shows how many extra events occur, not only how many times higher the risk is.
AFPAlpha-fetoproteinabbreviation: A protein measured in blood as a tumour marker; it can be raised in some germ cell tumours, notably non-seminomatous ones.
Age-adjusted rateterm: A rate recalculated as if the population had a standard age distribution, so that populations or years with different age structures can be compared. Age-adjusted rates are not the same as crude rates, which describe the actual population.
AIAromatase inhibitorabbreviation: A drug (anastrozole, letrozole, exemestane) that lowers oestrogen production by blocking the aromatase enzyme; used for hormone-receptor-positive breast cancer after menopause.
AIDAATRA plus idarubicinabbreviation: A treatment approach for APL that combines ATRA with the anthracycline idarubicin for induction, followed by consolidation chemotherapy. Protocols called AIDA differ in their consolidation and maintenance schedules.
AJCCAmerican Joint Committee on Cancerabbreviation: The body that publishes the TNM-based staging manual used for melanoma. Guidelines and trials cite its edition (for example the 7th or 8th), because the same patient can fall in a different stage group under different editions.
Alive without disease at 3 yearsendpoint: The proportion of patients who are alive and free of lymphoma three years after starting treatment, as the report defines it.
ALKAnaplastic lymphoma kinaseabbreviation: A receptor tyrosine kinase. Rearrangements of the ALK gene drive a subset of non-small cell lung cancers and are targeted by ALK inhibitors.
ALLAcute lymphoblastic leukemiaabbreviation: A leukemia in which abnormal, immature white blood cells (lymphoblasts) crowd out normal blood cells in the bone marrow. The NCI fact sheet used on this page calls it the most common childhood cancer.
All-cause mortalityendpoint: Deaths from any cause, reported as a cumulative percentage or a hazard ratio.
ALNDAxillary lymph node dissectionabbreviation: Surgical removal of the lymph nodes in the armpit (axilla).
AML-MRCAML with myelodysplasia-related changesabbreviation: A category of AML associated with changes in the bone marrow known as myelodysplasia (the EMA's lay description). Its definition and naming have differed between classification systems.
Ampulla of Vaterterm: The point in the duodenum where the common bile duct and the main pancreatic duct join and empty into the bowel.
Anaplasiaterm: Markedly abnormal cell nuclei seen under the microscope. In Wilms tumour it was reported in 1978 to be linked to worse outcomes.
ANITAAdjuvant Navelbine International Trialist Associationabbreviation: A randomised trial of adjuvant vinorelbine plus cisplatin versus observation after complete resection of non-small cell lung cancer.
Ann Arbor classificationterm: The staging system for Hodgkin lymphoma, reported by a staging committee in 1971, that describes how far the disease has spread; modified terminology is still used in the Lugano classification.
Anthracyclineterm: A class of chemotherapy drugs that includes doxorubicin, the first-line comparator in several trials of advanced soft-tissue sarcoma.
Antisepsisterm: The use of chemical agents, such as carbolic acid in Lister's method, to kill microbes in or around a wound and so reduce infection. Aseptic technique, which aims to keep microbes away from the start, is a related approach; historians caution that the sequence from antisepsis to asepsis was less simple than often told.
Any first recurrenceendpoint: A first recurrence of breast cancer at any site (locoregional or distant), reported here as a cumulative risk.
AOEArterial occlusive eventabbreviation: Blockage of an artery, for example causing heart attack, stroke or reduced blood flow to a limb. Events were reported with ponatinib and counted in its trials.
APDoxorubicin and cisplatinabbreviation: The two-drug chemotherapy regimen of doxorubicin and cisplatin used as the control in GOG-177.
APLAcute promyelocytic leukemiaabbreviation: A distinct subtype of acute myeloid leukemia, characterized by a translocation between chromosomes 15 and 17 that fuses the PML and RARA genes.
Aromatic amineterm: A class of industrial chemicals, used for example in dye manufacture. Some aromatic amines, such as beta-naphthylamine, have been linked to bladder cancer in exposed workers.
ARPIAndrogen receptor pathway inhibitorabbreviation: A class of hormonal drugs used in advanced prostate cancer. In the trials on this timeline it includes abiraterone and enzalutamide, and in PSMAddition also apalutamide and darolutamide.
ASCCPAmerican Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathologyabbreviation: A US professional society whose risk-based management consensus guidelines address follow-up of abnormal cervical cancer screening results and precancer.
ASCOAmerican Society of Clinical Oncologyabbreviation: A professional society of oncologists that publishes clinical practice guidelines.
ASCOAmerican Society of Clinical Oncologyabbreviation: A professional society of oncologists that publishes clinical practice guidelines, including living guidelines that are updated on a regular schedule by a standing expert panel.
ASCTAutologous stem cell transplantabbreviation: Treatment in which a person's own blood stem cells are collected, stored during high-dose chemotherapy, and returned to restore the bone marrow. Also called autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (auto-HSCT).
ASHAmerican Society of Hematologyabbreviation: A US professional society for haematology that publishes clinical practice guidelines, here in its journal Blood Advances.
Asparaginase-related toxicityendpoint: The proportion of patients who have an asparaginase-related complication, such as allergy, pancreatitis, or a thrombotic or bleeding event. Which events are counted is set by each study.
ASTROAmerican Society for Radiation Oncologyabbreviation: A professional society of radiation oncologists that publishes clinical practice guidelines.
ATAAmerican Thyroid Associationabbreviation: The professional society that publishes management guidelines for thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer.
ATCAnaplastic thyroid cancerabbreviation: A rare type of thyroid cancer, one of the four main types named by the US SEER programme (papillary, follicular, medullary and anaplastic), which are distinguished by how the cancer cells look under a microscope.
Atherosclerotic disease after treatmentendpoint: Disease caused by fatty build-up in artery walls (for example coronary artery disease or heart attack) diagnosed after treatment for testicular cancer. Each study sets its own list of diagnoses that count.
ATOArsenic trioxideabbreviation: An arsenic-based medicine given by intravenous infusion that induces remission in APL, used alone in relapsed disease and with ATRA in newly diagnosed disease.
ATRAAll-trans retinoic acid (tretinoin)abbreviation: A vitamin A derivative that, in APL, makes leukemic cells mature (differentiate) into granulocytes. Used with chemotherapy or with arsenic trioxide.
Atypical hyperplasiaendpoint: Proportion of women with atypical hyperplasia of the endometrium on biopsy, curettage or hysterectomy specimens during follow-up.
AUAAmerican Urological Associationabbreviation: A professional society of urologists that publishes clinical practice guidelines, including the bladder cancer guidelines it issues jointly with the Society of Urologic Oncology.
AUCArea under the ROC curveabbreviation: A summary of how well a test separates people with and without a condition; 1.0 is perfect separation and 0.5 is no better than chance.
AUC (carboplatin dosing)Area under the concentration-time curveabbreviation: The way carboplatin dose is calculated from kidney function so that exposure to the drug is targeted, for example AUC 6.
AUC7Carboplatin dosing target of area under the curve 7abbreviation: A dosing formula for carboplatin based on kidney function (glomerular filtration rate); in the TE19 trial the dose was 7 x (glomerular filtration rate + 25) mg.
Authorisation under exceptional circumstancesterm: A type of European marketing authorisation granted when a medicine's benefits and risks cannot be fully assessed, for example for ethical reasons or because a disease is rare. The authorisation is reviewed every year.
AVDDoxorubicin, vinblastine, dacarbazineabbreviation: A chemotherapy combination for Hodgkin lymphoma. It is ABVD without bleomycin and is the chemotherapy backbone paired with brentuximab vedotin (A+AVD, BV+AVD) or nivolumab (N+AVD) in the trials described here.
AYAAdolescents and young adultsabbreviation: An age grouping used in cancer care and statistics for people between childhood and older adulthood. The NCI fact sheet cited here uses 15 to 39 years.
Barrett oesophagusterm: A change in the lining of the lower oesophagus that is a recognised precursor of oesophageal adenocarcinoma. It is more common in people with long-standing reflux symptoms.
Barrett oesophagus diagnoses per 1000 person-yearsendpoint: Rate of new diagnoses of Barrett oesophagus in the 12 months after enrolment, per 1000 person-years. It is a detection measure: a higher rate means more diagnoses, not better outcomes.
BCF-free survivalBiochemical or clinical failure-free survivalendpoint: Proportion free of biochemical failure (a rise in PSA by a trial-specific definition) or clinical failure at the stated time. The events counted differ between trials.
BCGBacillus Calmette-Guérinabbreviation: A bacterial preparation instilled into the bladder as an immunotherapy for non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer.
BCG-naiveterm: Not previously treated with intravesical BCG. Trials define the cut-off differently; some allow earlier BCG if it ended long before enrolment.
BCG-unresponsiveterm: One of several categories of BCG treatment failure used in non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer trials and drug labels. The exact criteria are set by each regulator or protocol, so check the definition each study used before comparing results.
BCL-2B-cell lymphoma 2abbreviation: A protein that helps cells avoid programmed cell death. Venetoclax inhibits it.
BCL2abbreviation: A protein that helps cancer cells avoid programmed cell death. Venetoclax is a BCL2 inhibitor.
BCLCBarcelona Clinic Liver Cancerabbreviation: A staging classification for hepatocellular carcinoma that assigns patients to stages A to D and links each stage to a treatment approach.
BCMAB-cell maturation antigenabbreviation: A protein found on the surface of plasma cells, including myeloma cells. It is the target of several CAR T-cell products, bispecific antibodies and an antibody-drug conjugate used in myeloma.
BCR-ABLterm: The fusion gene created when the ABL gene from chromosome 9 joins the BCR gene on chromosome 22, and the abnormal tyrosine kinase protein it produces.
BCR-ABL1 ≤1% (IS)endpoint: In chronic myeloid leukemia, BCR-ABL1 transcript levels at or below 1% on the international scale, a level used in the OPTIC trial to trigger ponatinib dose reduction and as its response measure.
BCSBreast-conserving surgeryabbreviation: Removal of the tumour with a margin of surrounding tissue while keeping the rest of the breast (for example lumpectomy or quadrantectomy).
BEACOPPBleomycin, etoposide, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, procarbazine, prednisoneabbreviation: A seven-drug chemotherapy regimen for Hodgkin lymphoma, given at baseline or increased (escalated) doses.
BEAMCarmustine, etoposide, cytarabine, melphalanabbreviation: A high-dose chemotherapy combination used before stem-cell or marrow rescue; the same drugs at lower doses are called mini-BEAM.
Bence Jones proteinterm: Immunoglobulin light chains found in excess in the urine in multiple myeloma, named after Henry Bence Jones.
BEPBleomycin, etoposide, cisplatinabbreviation: A three-drug chemotherapy combination used for germ-cell tumours.
BEPBleomycin, etoposide, cisplatinabbreviation: A chemotherapy combination of bleomycin, etoposide and cisplatin, the first-line regimen for germ-cell tumours. Cycle numbers and doses differ between trials.
BFMBerlin-Frankfurt-Münsterabbreviation: A study group whose chemotherapy regimen for ALL is the backbone of many protocols, including the augmented BFM regimen used by the Children's Oncology Group.
BI-EFSBladder-intact event-free survivalendpoint: Time from randomization until an event that ends bladder preservation or disease control, such as cancer coming back, spreading or needing cystectomy, or death. The exact event list is set by each trial.
BICRBlinded independent central reviewabbreviation: Assessment of imaging for tumor response or progression by independent reviewers who do not know which treatment the patient received.
Binet stagingterm: A clinical staging system for CLL with stages A, B and C, based on the number of involved lymphoid areas and on whether anaemia or thrombocytopenia is present.
Biochemical recurrenceterm: A rise in blood PSA after surgery or radiotherapy to the prostate, taken as a sign that cancer may have returned, usually before it can be seen on imaging.
Bispecific antibodyterm: An antibody built to bind two different targets at once. In myeloma, the bispecific antibodies in the timeline bind a protein on myeloma cells (BCMA or GPRC5D) and CD3 on T cells, which brings the two cell types together.
Bispecific T-cell engagerterm: An antibody construct with two binding arms, one attaching to T cells and one to a protein on cancer cells, so that T cells are brought next to the cancer cell; blinatumomab binds CD3 and CD19.
BLABiologics license applicationabbreviation: An application to the US FDA for licensing of a biologic medicine, such as an antibody.
BLABiologics license applicationabbreviation: The application a sponsor submits to the US FDA to market a biological product such as an antibody or cell therapy. FDA approval letters identify products by BLA number, and later indications are added as supplements.
Black bileterm: One of the four humours of ancient medicine. Galen attributed cancer to an accumulation of residues of black bile; this is a historical theory, not a documented cause.
Bladder cancer incidenceendpoint: Occurrence of new bladder cancer during follow-up in a cohort, reported as a rate per person-years or as a hazard ratio between exposure groups.
Bladder cancer-specific survivalendpoint: The estimated probability of not having died of bladder cancer by a stated time; deaths from other causes are not counted as events.
BRBendamustine plus rituximababbreviation: A chemoimmunotherapy regimen used as a comparator in trials of ibrutinib, zanubrutinib and pirtobrutinib.
BR-PDACBorderline resectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomaabbreviation: Cancer that is not clearly removable at the outset because of vessel contact, suspected spread or the person's condition. The 2017 international consensus defines it along anatomical, biological and conditional dimensions.
Brachytherapyterm: Radiotherapy delivered from radioactive sources placed in or next to the tumour. Radium sources were used for about 80 years before being replaced, mainly for radiation-safety reasons.
BRAFterm: A gene that can carry activating mutations in melanoma. BRAF V600E and V600K mutations are the target of BRAF and MEK inhibitor combinations, and the ESMO guideline describes mutation testing of BRAF V600 as mandatory.
BRAF V600EB-Raf proto-oncogene, serine/threonine kinase; valine-to-glutamate change at position 600abbreviation: An activating change in the BRAF gene found in a minority of colorectal cancers. The trial reports describe it as an aggressive subtype with a poor prognosis in metastatic disease.
BRCA mutationterm: A harmful change in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene, which take part in DNA repair. It can be inherited (germline) or arise only in the tumour (somatic).
Breast cancer mortalityendpoint: Deaths attributed to breast cancer, reported as a rate, a cumulative percentage or a rate ratio depending on the study; the cause-of-death attribution rules differ between trials.
BrECADDBrentuximab vedotin, etoposide, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, dacarbazine, dexamethasoneabbreviation: A chemotherapy regimen with brentuximab vedotin tested in the HD21 trial against escalated BEACOPP in advanced-stage classical Hodgkin lymphoma.
Breslow thicknessterm: The thickness of a primary melanoma, measured in millimetres from the granular layer of the epidermis; deeper tumours carry a worse prognosis, and thickness is a criterion of the T category in melanoma staging.
BSCBest supportive careabbreviation: Treatment aimed at symptoms and comfort, such as pain control and nutrition, without an anticancer drug. Used as the comparison arm when no further standard treatment exists.
BTK inhibitorBruton tyrosine kinase inhibitorterm: A drug that blocks BTK, an enzyme in B-cell receptor signalling. Ibrutinib, acalabrutinib and zanubrutinib bind covalently; pirtobrutinib binds non-covalently (reversibly).
BuMelBusulfan and melphalanabbreviation: A high-dose chemotherapy regimen given before an autologous stem-cell transplant.
BVBrentuximab vedotinabbreviation: An antibody-drug conjugate that delivers the microtubule-disrupting agent monomethyl auristatin E to cells that carry the CD30 protein, which is present on Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cells.
CA 19-9Carbohydrate antigen 19-9abbreviation: A carbohydrate antigen, detected by a monoclonal antibody named 19-9, that can be measured in blood. Levels are used in the management of pancreatic cancer and can also be raised by benign bile-duct and liver conditions.
CA-125Cancer antigen 125abbreviation: A protein measured in a blood test. It is commonly used, with transvaginal ultrasound, in the evaluation of women with symptoms that may be due to ovarian cancer, and it was the blood test used in the PLCO screening trial.
Cacoethesterm: In Celsus's account of carcinoma, the first stage, the only one he says can be removed; later stages are carcinoma without ulceration, ulceration and a wart-like stage. It is a clinical stage from an ancient text, not a modern diagnosis.
Calcitoninterm: A hormone made by the C-cells of the thyroid, the cells that medullary thyroid cancer arises from. Blood levels are used as a tumour marker in medullary thyroid cancer.
Cancer-specific survivalendpoint: Time from randomisation (or surgery) until death from the cancer. Deaths from other causes are not counted as events.
CAPOXCapecitabine and oxaliplatinabbreviation: A chemotherapy regimen of oral capecitabine with intravenous oxaliplatin.
CAPSCancer of the Pancreas Screeningabbreviation: The international consortium and cohort studies of imaging surveillance in people at increased inherited risk of pancreatic cancer.
CAR T cellsChimeric antigen receptor T cellsterm: A patient's own T cells, genetically modified to carry a receptor that recognises a protein on cancer cells, and returned to the patient by infusion.
Carcinogenterm: A substance, radiation or other agent that can cause cancer, such as soot and coal tar (chimney sweeps' scrotal cancer), ionising radiation or tobacco smoke.
Carcinosarcomaterm: A tumour of the uterus that has both carcinoma (epithelial) and sarcoma (connective-tissue) components. Registry and staging documents may list it beside endometrial carcinoma.
Cardiovascular disease mortalityendpoint: Deaths from heart and blood-vessel disease, including stroke, compared with expected deaths in the general population or between groups. Death certificates provide the cause of death, so coding practices matter.
Case-control studyterm: A study that compares the past exposures of people who have a disease with those of similar people who do not.
Cause-specific survivalendpoint: Survival in which only deaths from the disease under study (here lymphoma) count as events; deaths from other causes are not counted. How a death is attributed is set by each trial.
CBMCumulative burden of morbidityabbreviation: A summary score that combines the number and severity of a person's long-term health problems, used to describe the overall load of late effects instead of counting single complications.
CBRClinical benefit rateendpoint: The proportion of people with a complete or partial response, or stable disease lasting at least a trial-defined time (16 weeks in the everolimus-letrozole study).
CBTRUSCentral Brain Tumor Registry of the United Statesabbreviation: A registry resource that combines US cancer registry data on primary brain and other central nervous system tumours, malignant and non-malignant. Its statistical reports give incidence and survival by tumour type.
CCRConventional care regimensabbreviation: A control strategy in some AML trials in which each patient receives a preselected standard option such as best supportive care, low-dose cytarabine or intensive chemotherapy.
CCyRComplete cytogenetic responseendpoint: In chronic myeloid leukemia, no dividing bone marrow cells carry the Philadelphia chromosome.
CD19term: A protein on the surface of B cells and of leukemia cells that arise from them; the target of blinatumomab and of CD19-directed CAR T cells.
CD22term: A protein on the surface of B cells and of most B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells; the target of inotuzumab ozogamicin.
CD30abbreviation: A cell-surface protein found on Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cells and on some T-cell lymphomas. It is the target of brentuximab vedotin.
CD33term: A protein present on the leukemic cells of most people with AML and on myeloid progenitor cells. Gemtuzumab ozogamicin is an antibody-drug conjugate directed at CD33.
CD38abbreviation: A protein on the surface of cells. The percentage of CLL cells that carry it has been studied as a prognostic marker.
CD38Cluster of differentiation 38abbreviation: A protein found at high levels on myeloma cells. Daratumumab and isatuximab are antibodies directed against it.
CDK4/6 inhibitorCyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 inhibitorabbreviation: A drug class (palbociclib, ribociclib, abemaciclib) that blocks the CDK4 and CDK6 enzymes, which drive cells through the cell cycle.
CEBCarboplatin, etoposide, bleomycinabbreviation: A chemotherapy combination in which carboplatin replaces cisplatin in BEP.
CEMCarboplatin, etoposide and melphalanabbreviation: A high-dose chemotherapy regimen given before an autologous stem-cell transplant.
Central neck dissectionterm: Removal of lymph nodes and surrounding fat from the central compartment of the neck (level VI), the area beside the windpipe next to the thyroid. 'Prophylactic' means it is done when no suspicious nodes are seen on imaging before surgery.
cfHPV-DNACell-free human papillomavirus DNAabbreviation: Fragments of HPV DNA circulating in the blood plasma, tested as a marker of residual HPV-related cancer after treatment.
Chemoradiotherapyterm: Radiotherapy given together with chemotherapy, usually cisplatin in cervical cancer, so that the drug can make the cancer cells more sensitive to the radiation. Also called concurrent or concomitant chemoradiation.
Chemoradiotherapyterm: Radiotherapy given together with chemotherapy.
Child-Pugh classterm: A score (classes A, B and C, or points from 5 upward) that grades how well the liver is working in people with cirrhosis. In the hepatocellular carcinoma trials described here, entry was generally limited to class A, the best-preserved liver function.
CHMPCommittee for Medicinal Products for Human Useabbreviation: The committee of the European Medicines Agency that adopts opinions on whether a medicine should be authorised or its terms changed. The European Commission then takes the formal decision.
CHRComplete hematologic responseendpoint: In chronic myeloid leukemia, blood counts return to normal. Exact criteria vary between studies.
Chronic phaseCPterm: The first phase of CML, before accelerated or blast phase. Definitions of the phases differ between the ELN, WHO and International Consensus Classification systems, mainly in the blast percentages used, and the 2022 WHO classification no longer recognises accelerated phase.
CIConfidence intervalabbreviation: A range of values that is compatible with the data. A 95% confidence interval is calculated so that, across many repeated studies, 95% of such intervals would contain the true value.
cIMPACT-NOWConsortium to Inform Molecular and Practical Approaches to CNS Tumor Taxonomyabbreviation: A consortium whose updates on diagnostic criteria for central nervous system tumours fed into the 2021 WHO classification.
CINCervical intraepithelial neoplasiaabbreviation: Abnormal change in cells on the surface of the cervix that can precede cervical cancer, graded 1 to 3 by how much of the thickness of the lining is affected.
CIN2+Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or worseabbreviation: Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or worse: moderate or severe precancerous change of the cervix, or invasive cervical cancer, as confirmed on histology.
CIN2+ detection within 6 months of screeningendpoint: Number of women with CIN2 or worse detected within 6 months after screening.
CIN3+Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 or worseabbreviation: Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 or worse: the most severe precancerous change of the cervix, or invasive cervical cancer, as confirmed on histology.
CIRCumulative incidence of relapseendpoint: The proportion of patients who have had a relapse (at any site unless the study states otherwise) by a stated time, with death before relapse treated as a competing event.
CIRSCumulative Illness Rating Scaleabbreviation: A score of coexisting medical conditions across organ systems; higher scores indicate worse overall health.
CISCarcinoma in situabbreviation: Carcinoma in situ of the bladder: a flat, high-grade tumour confined to the inner lining. It is counted within non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer.
Cisplatin-ineligibleterm: Not able to receive cisplatin-containing chemotherapy, for example because of reduced kidney function, hearing loss, nerve damage or poor general fitness. Trials and labels each define the criteria.
Clark levelterm: Level of invasion of a primary melanoma through the layers of the skin, graded I to V.
CLDN18.2Claudin 18 isoform 2abbreviation: A cell-surface protein found on some gastric and junctional adenocarcinomas; the target of the antibody zolbetuximab. Positivity is decided by immunohistochemistry on tumour tissue, with the threshold defined by each trial and by the approved test.
Clinical benefit responseendpoint: A composite symptom-and-function measure used in the 1997 gemcitabine trial: a sustained improvement in pain (analgesic use or pain intensity), performance status or weight without worsening in any of the others. Rates are the proportion of patients meeting it.
Clinical complete responseendpoint: No detectable tumour on clinical assessment (examination, endoscopy and imaging as defined by each study) after neoadjuvant treatment. It is a clinical judgement, not a pathological finding, and the criteria differ between studies.
Clinical complete responseterm: No tumour detected on tests after treatment (in the SANO trial: endoscopic biopsies, ultrasound and PET-CT), without removing the oesophagus to check.
Clinical progressionendpoint: Progression of prostate cancer judged clinically during follow-up, as defined by each study; reported here as the proportion of men in each arm.
Clinical response rateendpoint: The proportion of patients whose tumours responded to treatment under the criteria set by each study; early studies used their own definitions, which differ from modern RECIST-based response rates.
Clinically relevant toxic effectsendpoint: In the infant blinatumomab study, any toxic effect possibly or definitely attributable to blinatumomab that led to permanent discontinuation of the drug or to death.
CLLChronic lymphocytic leukaemiaabbreviation: A cancer of B lymphocytes in which abnormal cells accumulate in blood, bone marrow and lymphoid tissue. When the disease is found mainly in lymph nodes with few abnormal cells in the blood it is called small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL); the 2026 EHA guideline states that the WHO 2022 classification treats CLL and SLL as a single entity, and trials and drug labels often combine them as CLL/SLL.
CLL-IPIInternational prognostic index for chronic lymphocytic leukaemiaabbreviation: A prognostic index published in 2016 that combines TP53 status, IGHV mutational status, serum beta-2 microglobulin, clinical stage and age into four risk groups for overall survival.
CMFCyclophosphamide, methotrexate, fluorouracilabbreviation: A three-drug combination chemotherapy regimen used as adjuvant treatment in breast cancer.
CMTCombined-modality treatmentabbreviation: Treatment that combines chemotherapy with radiotherapy.
CMVCisplatin, methotrexate, vinblastineabbreviation: A chemotherapy combination of cisplatin, methotrexate and vinblastine, given in the MRC/EORTC trial with folinic acid rescue.
CNBSSCanadian National Breast Screening Studyabbreviation: A randomised trial of mammography screening in women aged 40-59 at screening centres in Canada, with follow-up reported to 25 years.
CNSCentral nervous systemabbreviation: The brain, spinal cord and the fluid and membranes around them. Leukemia can involve this site, which is why treatment for ALL usually includes drugs given into the spinal fluid.
CNS relapseendpoint: Return of leukemia in the central nervous system, alone (isolated) or together with relapse elsewhere (combined). Each result's endpoint definition says which forms are counted.
CNS WHO gradeterm: The grade assigned within a tumour type in the 2021 WHO classification of central nervous system tumours, written in Arabic numerals (1 to 4). For some tumours a molecular finding, not only histology, can set the grade.
COGChildren's Oncology Groupabbreviation: A collaborative research group that conducts clinical trials in childhood cancers.
COJECCisplatin, vincristine, carboplatin, etoposide and cyclophosphamideabbreviation: An induction chemotherapy regimen for high-risk neuroblastoma; the rapid form is given every 10 days.
Colorectal cancer incidenceendpoint: New diagnoses of colorectal cancer in a group over time, reported as a risk, a rate or a hazard ratio. Some screening trials count cancers found at screening (the UK sigmoidoscopy trial does), so trials may not be directly comparable.
Colorectal cancer mortalityendpoint: Deaths attributed to colorectal cancer, reported as a cumulative rate, a risk, a rate ratio or a hazard ratio depending on the study; cause-of-death attribution rules differ between trials.
Colposcopyterm: Examination of the cervix with a magnifying instrument, usually with biopsy of abnormal areas, used after an abnormal screening result.
Companion diagnosticterm: A laboratory test, cleared or approved together with a drug, that identifies the people whose tumours carry the feature the drug targets.
Complete remission rateendpoint: The proportion of patients with leukemia whose blood counts and bone marrow return to normal, with no detectable leukemia on standard examination, within a stated time after treatment.
Complete remission rateendpoint: The proportion of patients with leukemia whose blood counts and bone marrow return to normal, with no detectable leukemia on standard examination, within a stated time after treatment.
Complete resection of contrast-enhancing tumourendpoint: The share of patients with no contrast-enhancing tumour on MRI obtained shortly after surgery (within 72 hours in the 5-ALA trial); a measure of surgical radicality, not a survival endpoint.
Complete resection rateendpoint: Share of patients in whom surgery removed all macroscopically visible tumour (no visible residual disease).
Complete response in carcinoma in situendpoint: The proportion of patients with bladder carcinoma in situ in whom no cancer is found at the assessment visit, based on cystoscopy, urine cytology and biopsy as each study defines. The assessment time and the criteria differ between studies.
Complete response maintained at 12 monthsendpoint: Among patients who had a complete response, the proportion whose response was still present 12 months after the first dose, as the study defines it.
Complete response rateendpoint: The proportion of patients in whom all measurable disease and raised tumour markers disappear after treatment, as each trial defines it. Some trials count complete response after chemotherapy alone, others after chemotherapy plus surgery to remove residual masses; older papers call it complete remission.
Complex (adenomatous) hyperplasiaendpoint: Proportion of women with complex (adenomatous) hyperplasia of the endometrium on biopsy, curettage or hysterectomy specimens during follow-up.
Composite event-free rateendpoint: The percentage of patients without any event of a predefined composite at a stated time point. In ESTIMABL2 the composite counted functional, structural and biologic abnormalities (abnormal radioiodine uptake needing treatment, abnormal neck ultrasonography, or raised thyroglobulin or thyroglobulin antibodies).
Conditional marketing authorisationterm: An EU authorisation granted on less complete data than usual for medicines that meet an unmet need. It carries specific obligations and can be switched to a standard authorisation once the obligations are met.
Conditional marketing authorisationterm: A European Union authorisation granted on less comprehensive data than usual for a medicine that addresses an unmet need. The company must provide additional evidence afterwards; the authorisation may later be switched to a standard authorisation or may not be renewed.
Conditional marketing authorisationterm: An EU authorisation granted on less complete data than usual for a medicine that meets an unmet need. The company must provide confirmatory data, and the authorisation can be revoked if the benefit is not confirmed.
Confirmatory trialterm: A trial required after an accelerated approval to verify clinical benefit. If it does not show benefit, FDA can withdraw the accelerated approval.
Consolidation-to-tumour ratioterm: On thin-section CT, the proportion of a tumour's diameter that is solid (consolidation) rather than ground-glass. JCOG0802 enrolled tumours with a ratio above 0.5.
Continuous complete remissionendpoint: The probability of remaining in complete remission, with no relapse, up to a stated time among patients who reached complete remission.
Continuous disease-free rateendpoint: The proportion of patients who reached disease-free status and have stayed free of disease at the time of reporting. Follow-up length differs between reports.
COPP-ABVDCOPP (cyclophosphamide, vincristine, procarbazine, prednisone) alternating with ABVDabbreviation: An alternating chemotherapy schedule for Hodgkin lymphoma that uses COPP and ABVD in turn.
Corpus and Uterus, NOSterm: The SEER site group for cancers coded to the body of the uterus (corpus uteri) or to the uterus not otherwise specified (NOS). It is defined by site code, not by histology, so it is not limited to endometrial carcinoma.
Cotestingterm: Screening with an HPV test and cervical cytology together on the same sample or visit.
Covalent BTK inhibitorterm: A Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitor that forms a covalent bond with a cysteine residue in the active site of the enzyme; FDA labelling states this for ibrutinib, acalabrutinib and zanubrutinib. FDA labelling for pirtobrutinib refers to disease previously treated with this class.
CPSCombined positive scoreabbreviation: A PD-L1 score: the number of PD-L1-staining tumor cells, lymphocytes and macrophages divided by the total number of viable tumor cells, multiplied by 100.
CPX-351Vyxeosterm: A liposomal formulation that carries daunorubicin and cytarabine together in a fixed ratio, given as an intravenous infusion.
CRComplete remissionendpoint: Disappearance of detectable leukemia after treatment. The tests used and the criteria differ between studies and eras, so check each paper's definition.
CR or VGPR rateComplete response or very good partial response rateendpoint: The proportion of patients with myeloma whose response is a complete response or a very good partial response, using the response criteria of the individual study.
CR rateComplete response rateendpoint: The proportion of patients whose imaging and clinical assessment shows complete disappearance of detectable disease. The response criteria and who assesses them differ between trials.
CR/CRi rateComplete response or remission, including with incomplete marrow recoveryendpoint: The proportion of patients with CLL or SLL whose disease meets iwCLL criteria for complete response or remission, including those with incomplete blood count or marrow recovery.
CR+CRhComplete remission or complete remission with partial hematologic recoveryendpoint: Composite response rate used in trials of targeted drugs for acute myeloid leukemia: complete remission, or complete remission with partial hematologic recovery. Some papers write it CR/CRh.
CR+CRiComplete remission or complete remission with incomplete hematologic recoveryendpoint: Composite response rate in acute myeloid leukemia: the proportion of patients in complete remission, or in complete remission with incomplete blood count recovery. Exact criteria are set by each study.
CR+CRpComplete remission plus complete remission without platelet recoveryendpoint: Response rate in acute myeloid leukemia combining complete remission and complete remission in which platelet counts have not fully recovered.
CR+PR rateComplete plus partial response rateendpoint: The proportion of patients whose disease responds completely or partially to treatment. Response criteria are set by each study.
CRABHypercalcaemia, renal failure, anaemia and bone lesionsabbreviation: The four organ-damage features attributable to myeloma (hypercalcaemia, renal failure, anaemia and bone lesions), long required together with histological and monoclonal protein findings in the definition of multiple myeloma.
CROSS regimenterm: Weekly carboplatin and paclitaxel for five weeks with concurrent radiotherapy (41.4 Gy in 23 fractions), followed by surgery, as used in the Dutch CROSS trial.
Crossoverterm: A trial feature in which people assigned to the comparison arm may switch to the experimental treatment, usually after progression. It can make survival in the two arms look more alike than the true effect of the treatment.
CRPCCastration-resistant prostate cancerabbreviation: Prostate cancer that continues to progress despite testosterone lowered to castrate levels. Metastatic (mCRPC) and non-metastatic (nmCRPC) forms are studied separately; older papers say hormone-refractory or androgen-independent.
CRSCytokine release syndromeabbreviation: A reaction to immune-activating treatments such as CAR T cells, with fever and, in severe cases, low blood pressure and organ problems.
CRTChemoradiotherapyabbreviation: Radiotherapy given together with chemotherapy that sensitises tumour cells to radiation, commonly a fluoropyrimidine such as fluorouracil or capecitabine in rectal cancer.
ctDNACirculating tumour DNAabbreviation: Fragments of tumour-derived DNA found in the blood. After surgery, a ctDNA result is used as a marker of residual disease and of recurrence risk.
CTLA-4Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4abbreviation: A protein on T cells that acts as a brake on their activation; antibodies that block it are used as immune checkpoint treatment.
Cumulative burden of morbidity categoryendpoint: A score that counts the number and severity of long-term health problems in one person, grouped into categories from very low to very high or severe. Self-reported answers and examination findings feed the score.
Cumulative incidence of brain metastasisendpoint: The proportion of people who have developed brain metastases by a stated time, counting deaths from other causes as competing events where the paper does so.
Cumulative incidence of CIN3+endpoint: Proportion of screened women with histologically confirmed CIN3 or worse detected up to a stated time after randomization.
Cumulative incidence of distant metastasesendpoint: The proportion of patients diagnosed with distant metastases over time, taking competing events into account where the study states so.
Cumulative incidence of local regrowthendpoint: The proportion of patients managed by watch-and-wait in whom tumour reappears in the rectum or bowel wall over time.
Cumulative incidence of prostate cancerendpoint: Proportion of men diagnosed with prostate cancer over the follow-up reported. In screening trials a higher figure in the screened group reflects earlier and additional diagnoses, not a worse outcome by itself.
Cumulative incidence of recurrenceendpoint: Estimated proportion of women who have had a recurrence by a stated time, calculated so that deaths from other causes are not counted as recurrences.
Cumulative incidence of relapseendpoint: The probability of relapse by a given time, calculated so that deaths from other causes are treated as competing events rather than ignored.
Cumulative incidence of relapseendpoint: The probability of relapse by a given time, calculated so that deaths from other causes are treated as competing events rather than ignored.
Cumulative overall mortalityendpoint: The estimated share of a cohort that has died from any cause by a stated time after diagnosis, calculated with Kaplan-Meier methods.
Cumulative second solid cancer riskendpoint: The estimated chance of being diagnosed with a new solid cancer (not leukaemia) after testicular cancer by a stated age, as modelled by the authors. It is a model-based figure for a stated age at diagnosis, not an observed share of a cohort.
Cystectomyterm: Surgical removal of the bladder. Radical cystectomy removes the whole bladder and nearby tissue, and lymph nodes are usually removed with it.
Cystectomy avoidanceendpoint: The estimated probability that a patient has not had the bladder removed by a stated time, from a Kaplan-Meier analysis.
Cystectomy rateendpoint: The estimated proportion of patients treated with a bladder-sparing approach who later undergo cystectomy (in BC2001, reported as the rate of salvage cystectomy); lower is better for bladder preservation.
Cytologyterm: Examination of individual cells, for example cells shed from the cervix and collected in a smear, under the microscope to look for cancer or precancerous change.
Cytoreductive nephrectomyterm: Surgical removal of the kidney containing the main tumour in a person whose cancer has already spread, with the aim of improving the effect of drug treatment or survival rather than removing all disease.
Cytoreductive surgeryterm: Surgery that removes all visible tumour deposits from the peritoneal surfaces and affected organs.
D2 dissectionterm: A gastrectomy with removal of the perigastric lymph nodes and the nodes along the main arteries of the stomach. D1 removes the perigastric nodes only.
DAADirect-acting antiviralabbreviation: A medicine taken by mouth that acts directly on the hepatitis C virus. The direct-acting antiviral studies in this entry used interferon-free regimens.
DD4Aabbreviation: The vincristine, dactinomycin and doxorubicin regimen used in the North American Wilms tumour studies for stage III favourable-histology disease and for lung metastases.
Deaths probably related to treatmentendpoint: Proportion of women whose death was reported as one to which treatment probably contributed.
Deauville scoreterm: A five-point scale for reading how strongly lymphoma sites take up the tracer on a PET scan, compared with reference tissues. Higher scores mean higher uptake; trials differ in which score counts as a positive scan.
Debulking (cytoreductive) surgeryterm: Surgery that aims to remove as much visible tumour as possible, also called debulking. Primary cytoreduction is done before chemotherapy; interval cytoreduction is done after a few cycles of chemotherapy; secondary cytoreduction is done when the cancer has returned.
Definitive chemoradiotherapyterm: Chemotherapy given together with radiotherapy as the main treatment, without planned surgery.
Detection of CIN3+endpoint: Number of cases of CIN3 or worse found at a screening round. Whether a lower or higher number is better depends on the round: earlier detection raises it at baseline and a lower number is hoped for at the next round.
Detection of clinically insignificant prostate cancerendpoint: Proportion of men in whom clinically insignificant prostate cancer was diagnosed (for example Gleason score 6 or ISUP grade 1, as defined by each study). A lower figure means fewer low-risk diagnoses.
Detection of clinically significant prostate cancerendpoint: Proportion of men in whom clinically significant prostate cancer was diagnosed. The definition (for example Gleason score 7 or higher) differs between studies and is given with each result.
Detection of low-grade prostate cancer (Gleason score 6 or lower)endpoint: Proportion of men in whom prostate cancer of Gleason score 6 or lower was diagnosed, as reported by the study.
DFMODifluoromethylornithine (eflornithine)abbreviation: An inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase, given by mouth in neuroblastoma to reduce the risk of relapse after other treatment.
DFSDisease-free survivalendpoint: Time after treatment aimed at cure until the cancer returns or the person dies. Exact event definitions vary between trials.
Diagnostic accuracyendpoint: Overall accuracy of an imaging test against the study's reference standard, as defined by each study (in proPSMA the abstract says it was defined by the receiver-operating curve); the reference standard and the condition (for example pelvic nodal or distant metastasis) are given with each result.
Diagnostic sensitivityendpoint: Proportion of men with the target condition, as defined by the study's reference standard, in whom the test was positive.
Diagnostic specificityendpoint: Proportion of men without the target condition, as defined by the study's reference standard, in whom the test was negative.
Differentiation therapyterm: Treatment that drives leukemic cells to mature into more normal cells. ATRA acts in this way in APL.
Disease outside the uterus at surgeryendpoint: Proportion of patients with lymph node metastasis, adnexal disease, intraperitoneal spread or malignant cells in peritoneal washings at surgery.
Disease progression in chronic hepatitis Bendpoint: A composite of hepatic decompensation, hepatocellular carcinoma, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, bleeding oesophageal or gastric varices and death related to liver disease.
Disease-free status after treatmentendpoint: The proportion of patients with no evidence of disease after chemotherapy, with or without surgery to remove residual masses, as each trial defines it. It is a response measure, not a measure of how long the patient stays free of disease.
Disease-related treatment failureendpoint: A composite endpoint used in the RAPIDO trial: the first occurrence of locoregional failure, distant metastasis, a new primary colorectal tumour or treatment-related death.
Disease-specific survivalendpoint: Time until death from the disease under study; deaths from other causes are not counted as events.
Disseminated failureendpoint: Recurrence as distant (disseminated) disease, estimated over time as defined by each trial.
Distant metastasisendpoint: Spread of melanoma to organs away from the primary site and its regional lymph nodes.
Distant recurrenceendpoint: Return of the cancer at sites away from the pelvis, such as lung or liver, reported as a cumulative incidence at a stated time.
Distant recurrence as first eventendpoint: Recurrence at a distant site as the first recurrence event, reported here as a cumulative incidence.
DLBCLDiffuse large B-cell lymphomaabbreviation: A type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma that begins in B cells. The SEER Cancer Stat Facts pages name it, with follicular lymphoma, as one of the two most common types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in adults and describe it as usually aggressive (fast-growing).
DLIDonor lymphocyte infusionabbreviation: Giving a transplant recipient white blood cells from the original donor, usually to treat a return of the leukemia after transplantation.
DLL3Delta-like ligand 3abbreviation: A protein found on the surface of many small-cell lung cancer cells that tarlatamab is designed to bind.
DMFSDistant metastasis-free survivalendpoint: Survival without a distant metastasis. Which events are counted (for example whether death from any cause counts) is defined by each trial.
dMMRMismatch repair deficiencyabbreviation: A tumour feature in which the cell cannot correct copying errors in its DNA, leading to many mutations.
DMRDeep molecular responseabbreviation: A very low level of BCR-ABL1 transcripts on the International Scale, usually MR4 (0.01% or less) or MR4.5 (0.0032% or less). The exact thresholds used differ between studies.
DORDuration of responseendpoint: Time from the first documented response until progression or death, among people who responded.
Dose-dense chemotherapyterm: A schedule that gives a drug more often, for example paclitaxel weekly instead of every three weeks, so that doses are closer together.
DREDigital rectal examinationabbreviation: Digital rectal examination: palpation of the prostate through the rectum.
DRFSDistant relapse-free survivalendpoint: Time during which the cancer has not come back at a distant site. Whether death counts as an event depends on the trial definition.
DRRDurable response rateendpoint: In the talimogene laherparepvec phase 3 trial, the proportion of patients with a complete or partial response lasting continuously for at least 6 months.
DS-ALLAcute lymphoblastic leukemia in children with Down syndromeabbreviation: Acute lymphoblastic leukemia occurring in a child with Down syndrome (trisomy 21).
DTCDifferentiated thyroid cancerabbreviation: Thyroid cancer arising from follicular cells that still resembles normal thyroid tissue; mainly papillary and follicular types.
Durable complete response rateendpoint: The proportion of patients with a complete response that is maintained at a stated time point (1 year in the trial using it here), as the trial defines it.
EANOEuropean Association of Neuro-Oncologyabbreviation: A European professional society for neuro-oncology that publishes clinical practice guidelines for brain tumours.
Early mortalityendpoint: The proportion of patients who die within a stated early period after starting treatment, such as 30 or 60 days. Which deaths count is set by each trial.
EAUEuropean Association of Urologyabbreviation: A European professional society for urology that publishes clinical practice guidelines, including a guideline on testicular cancer.
EBCTCGEarly Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Groupabbreviation: A collaboration that pools individual-patient data from randomised trials in early breast cancer and publishes overviews (meta-analyses) of them.
eBEACOPPEscalated-dose bleomycin, etoposide, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, procarbazine, prednisoneabbreviation: A seven-drug combination chemotherapy regimen for Hodgkin lymphoma in which etoposide, cyclophosphamide and doxorubicin are given at escalated doses. Also written BEACOPPesc.
EBRTExternal beam radiotherapyabbreviation: Radiotherapy delivered from a machine outside the body. After hysterectomy it is given to the pelvis.
EBVEpstein-Barr virusabbreviation: A common herpesvirus. Fragments of its DNA in blood plasma have been studied as a marker of nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
ECEuropean Commissionabbreviation: The European Union body that issues the legal decision granting a marketing authorisation after the EMA's committee has given a positive opinion.
ECEExtracapsular extensionabbreviation: Spread of cancer from a lymph node through the node's outer capsule into surrounding tissue.
ECF/ECXEpirubicin, cisplatin, fluorouracil or capecitabineabbreviation: An older perioperative chemotherapy combination: epirubicin and cisplatin with fluorouracil as a continuous infusion (ECF) or with oral capecitabine (ECX).
EFSEvent-free survivalendpoint: Time until a predefined event such as progression, relapse, a second cancer or death. Which events count is set by each trial.
EFVPTCEncapsulated follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinomaabbreviation: A papillary thyroid tumour with a follicular growth pattern surrounded by a capsule. Without invasion it is now called NIFTP.
EGFREpidermal growth factor receptorabbreviation: A receptor on the surface of many cells that passes growth signals inward through a chain of proteins that includes RAS. Cetuximab and panitumumab are antibodies that block it.
EGFREpidermal growth factor receptorabbreviation: A cell-surface protein that drives growth in some cancers; cetuximab is an antibody that blocks it.
EGFREpidermal growth factor receptorabbreviation: A receptor protein on cell surfaces. Certain changes in the EGFR gene (for example exon 19 deletions, the exon 21 L858R substitution, and exon 20 insertions) drive some lung cancers and can be targeted with tyrosine kinase inhibitors or antibodies.
eGFR below 15Estimated glomerular filtration rate below 15 mL/min/1.73 m2endpoint: Share of people whose lowest recorded estimated kidney filtration rate fell below 15 mL/min/1.73 m2, a threshold used here for kidney failure.
eGFR below 30Estimated glomerular filtration rate below 30 mL/min/1.73 m2endpoint: Share of people whose lowest recorded estimated kidney filtration rate fell below 30 mL/min/1.73 m2, a threshold used here for advanced kidney disease.
eGFR below 60Estimated glomerular filtration rate below 60 mL/min/1.73 m2endpoint: Share of people whose lowest recorded estimated kidney filtration rate fell below 60 mL/min/1.73 m2, a threshold used here for at least moderate renal dysfunction.
EHAEuropean Hematology Associationabbreviation: A European professional society for haematology that publishes clinical practice guidelines, here in its journal HemaSphere.
EHNSEuropean Head and Neck Societyabbreviation: A European society for head and neck cancer care that co-authors clinical practice guidelines with ESMO and ESTRO.
ELNEuropean LeukemiaNetabbreviation: A European network of leukaemia specialists that publishes consensus recommendations for managing chronic myeloid leukemia.
ELTSEUTOS long-term survival scoreabbreviation: A risk score used at diagnosis of chronic-phase CML, grouped into low, intermediate and high risk categories.
EMAEuropean Medicines Agencyabbreviation: The European Medicines Agency, which evaluates medicines for the European Union. Its opinion goes to the European Commission, which issues the marketing authorisation.
EMAEuropean Medicines Agencyabbreviation: The European Union agency that evaluates medicines; marketing authorisations in the EU are then granted by the European Commission.
EMNEuropean Myeloma Networkabbreviation: A European research network for myeloma that sponsors trials and co-authors the EHA-EMN guidelines and the R2-ISS staging report cited in this timeline.
En bloc resection rateendpoint: The share of lesions removed in a single piece at endoscopic resection.
Endometrial hyperplasiaterm: Overgrowth of the lining of the uterus (endometrium), graded by its structure (simple or complex) and by whether the cells look atypical.
EORTCEuropean Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancerabbreviation: A European cancer research organisation that runs multicentre clinical trials.
EPEtoposide, cisplatinabbreviation: A chemotherapy combination of etoposide and cisplatin without bleomycin.
EPAREuropean public assessment reportabbreviation: The European Medicines Agency's public product page and assessment documents for an authorised medicine, including its indication and authorisation date.
Epithelioid sarcomaterm: A rare soft-tissue sarcoma in which most tumours have lost expression of the INI1 (SMARCB1) protein.
Equivalence trialterm: A trial design that tests whether two treatments differ by no more than a margin chosen in advance, in either direction.
Erections sufficient for intercourseendpoint: Patient-reported erections sufficient for intercourse, from questionnaires completed by participants; higher is better.
ERSPCEuropean Randomized Study of Screening for Prostate Cancerabbreviation: European Randomized Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer.
ES-SCLCExtensive-stage small-cell lung cancerabbreviation: Small-cell lung cancer that cannot be treated within a single radiotherapy field, for example because it has spread to distant sites; definitions vary slightly between trials.
ESCCOesophageal squamous cell carcinomaabbreviation: Cancer arising from the squamous cells that line the oesophagus. It is a different histology from adenocarcinoma, and trials often report the two separately.
ESDEndoscopic submucosal dissectionabbreviation: Removal of an early tumour and the tissue beneath it through an endoscope, as a single piece, so that the pathologist can judge the margins and depth of invasion.
ESGOEuropean Society of Gynaecological Oncologyabbreviation: A European society for gynaecological oncology that co-authors clinical practice guidelines for endometrial carcinoma with ESTRO and ESP.
ESGO/ESTRO/ESPEuropean Society of Gynaecological Oncology, European SocieTy for Radiotherapy and Oncology and European Society of Pathologyabbreviation: The three European societies that jointly issue guidelines for the management of cervical cancer.
ESMOEuropean Society for Medical Oncologyabbreviation: A European professional society for medical oncology that publishes clinical practice guidelines. Its testicular cancer guideline is a joint ESMO-EURACAN document.
ESPEuropean Society of Pathologyabbreviation: A European society for pathology that co-authors clinical practice guidelines for endometrial carcinoma with ESGO and ESTRO.
ESR1abbreviation: The gene that encodes estrogen receptor alpha. Mutations in ESR1 can be detected in a proportion of patients whose cancer has progressed on endocrine therapy; the approved indication for elacestrant is restricted to ESR1-mutated disease.
ESTROEuropean Society for Radiotherapy and Oncologyabbreviation: A European society for radiation oncology that co-authors clinical practice guidelines.
EURACANEuropean Reference Network for rare adult solid cancersabbreviation: A European network for rare adult solid cancers, including nasopharyngeal carcinoma, that co-authors guidelines with ESMO.
EUSEndoscopic ultrasonographyabbreviation: Ultrasound performed through an endoscope placed in the stomach or duodenum, giving close images of the pancreas.
EVEnfortumab vedotinabbreviation: Enfortumab vedotin, an antibody-drug conjugate directed at nectin-4, used with pembrolizumab in the KEYNOTE-905 and KEYNOTE-B15 trials.
Exceptional circumstances (EU authorisation)term: A type of EU marketing authorisation granted when a company cannot provide comprehensive efficacy and safety data under normal conditions, for example for a rare disease; the authorisation is reviewed each year.
External controlterm: A comparison group taken from another trial or from patient records instead of being randomised in the same study. It can be adjusted for known differences between patients, but unmeasured differences can still bias the comparison.
EZH2 inhibitorterm: A medicine that blocks the EZH2 enzyme, a transcriptional repressor on which tumours with loss of INI1/SMARCB1 are thought to depend.
FAB classificationFrench-American-British classificationabbreviation: A 1976 scheme in which a group of haematologists classified acute leukaemias by how the cells look under the microscope and by cytochemical staining.
Faecal leakageendpoint: Patient-reported leakage of stool.
False-positive share of positive screening resultsendpoint: Proportion of positive screening results that were false positives, that is, where the abnormality turned out not to be lung cancer.
Fatal toxic reactionsendpoint: The proportion of patients who die from toxic effects of treatment, as the report defines it.
Favourable histologyFHterm: A microscopic appearance of Wilms tumour without anaplasia, which in the North American studies carries a better outlook than unfavourable (anaplastic) histology.
FCFludarabine and cyclophosphamideabbreviation: A two-drug chemotherapy combination of the purine analogue fludarabine and the alkylating agent cyclophosphamide.
FCRFludarabine, cyclophosphamide and rituximababbreviation: The FC chemotherapy combination given together with the anti-CD20 antibody rituximab (chemoimmunotherapy).
FDAUS Food and Drug Administrationabbreviation: The US Food and Drug Administration, which approves drugs and biologic products for use in the United States and publishes approval letters and labels.
FDAUS Food and Drug Administrationabbreviation: The US federal agency that approves medicines, biologic products and medical devices for sale in the United States.
FDG-PETFluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomographyabbreviation: A scan that shows areas of high glucose uptake, which can indicate viable tumour.
FFPFreedom from progressionendpoint: The proportion of people who have not progressed by a given time. The definition of progression is set by each trial (in chronic myeloid leukemia, progression to accelerated phase or blast crisis).
FFSFailure-free survivalendpoint: Time until treatment failure, later progression or death from any cause, as each trial defines failure; in some reports a rate at a fixed time point.
FFTFFreedom from treatment failureendpoint: Time until a treatment-failure event occurs. Which events count (for example lack of response, progression, relapse or death) is set by each study group and must be read from the paper.
FGFR2bFibroblast growth factor receptor 2babbreviation: A receptor protein on the surface of cells whose overexpression in tumour tissue is measured by a laboratory test. It is the biomarker used to select patients for the FORTITUDE-101 trial of bemarituzumab.
FIGOInternational Federation of Gynecology and Obstetricsabbreviation: The international federation that publishes the staging systems used for gynaecological cancers, including endometrial cancer.
FIGO stageterm: The staging system of the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, which groups cervical cancers by how far they have spread. The system has been revised over time and the trials in this timeline cite different versions (for example FIGO 2008, 2009 and 2014), so stage labels from different trials may not be equivalent.
FISHFluorescence in situ hybridisationabbreviation: A laboratory method that uses fluorescent probes to detect deletions, extra copies or translocations of specific chromosome regions in cells.
FITFaecal immunochemical testabbreviation: A stool test that uses antibodies to detect human blood in the sample.
FLFollicular lymphomaabbreviation: A usually slow-growing B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma that arises from germinal-centre B cells and is graded 1 to 3 by the share of large cells.
FLOTFluorouracil, leucovorin, oxaliplatin, docetaxelabbreviation: A chemotherapy combination given every two weeks: fluorouracil with leucovorin, oxaliplatin and docetaxel. Used before and after surgery for resectable gastric and junction cancer.
FLOTFluorouracil, leucovorin, oxaliplatin, docetaxelabbreviation: A four-drug chemotherapy regimen (fluorouracil, leucovorin, oxaliplatin and docetaxel) given before and after surgery in some resectable oesophageal and gastric cancers.
FLT3FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3abbreviation: A gene encoding a receptor tyrosine kinase that is mutated in a substantial minority of acute myeloid leukemias. Internal tandem duplications and tyrosine kinase domain point mutations are the main types.
FOBTFaecal occult blood testabbreviation: A stool test that looks for blood that cannot be seen by eye. Guaiac-based tests detect a chemical reaction of blood in the stool sample.
FOLFIRIFolinic acid (leucovorin), fluorouracil and irinotecanabbreviation: A family of regimens that combine irinotecan with leucovorin and fluorouracil given partly as a continuous infusion, usually every two weeks.
FOLFIRINOXFluorouracil, leucovorin, irinotecan and oxaliplatinabbreviation: A four-drug chemotherapy regimen given every two weeks.
FOLFIRINOXFolinic acid (leucovorin), fluorouracil, irinotecan, oxaliplatinabbreviation: A four-drug chemotherapy combination given every two weeks.
FOLFOXFolinic acid (leucovorin), fluorouracil and oxaliplatinabbreviation: A family of regimens that combine oxaliplatin with leucovorin and fluorouracil given partly as a continuous infusion, usually every two weeks. Versions are numbered (for example mFOLFOX6).
FOLFOXIRIFluorouracil, leucovorin, oxaliplatin and irinotecanabbreviation: A three-drug chemotherapy regimen combining oxaliplatin, irinotecan and infusional fluorouracil with leucovorin.
FRαFolate receptor alphaabbreviation: A protein on the surface of some ovarian cancer cells. It is the target of the antibody-drug conjugate mirvetuximab soravtansine; the staining threshold for 'high' or 'positive' is set by each trial.
G-CIMPGlioma CpG island methylation phenotypeabbreviation: A specific pattern of widespread DNA hypermethylation found in a subset of gliomas, accompanying IDH mutation in the TCGA analyses. The 2013 TCGA glioblastoma analysis attributed the survival advantage of the proneural subtype to it.
G-CSFGranulocyte colony-stimulating factorabbreviation: A growth factor given alongside chemotherapy to shorten the period of very low neutrophil counts and reduce the risk of serious infection.
Gastric cancer incidenceendpoint: The occurrence of new gastric cancers during follow-up in people who did not have the disease at entry.
gBRCAGermline BRCA1 or BRCA2 variantabbreviation: An inherited pathogenic or likely pathogenic variant in BRCA1 or BRCA2, present in all of a person's cells, as distinct from a variant found only in the tumor.
GCNISGerm cell neoplasia in situabbreviation: The pre-invasive lesion from which most testicular germ cell tumours in post-pubertal men are thought to arise; formerly called carcinoma in situ, IGCNU or TIN.
GCTGerm-cell tumourabbreviation: A tumour arising from germ cells; in the testis these are seminoma and non-seminoma.
GCTGerm cell tumourabbreviation: A tumour arising from germ cells, including seminoma and non-seminomatous tumours of the testis.
GD2Disialoganglioside GD2abbreviation: A sugar-lipid molecule found on the surface of neuroblastoma cells. Antibodies such as dinutuximab, dinutuximab beta and naxitamab bind to it.
GEJGastro-oesophageal junctionabbreviation: The junction between the oesophagus and the stomach. Tumours here can behave as oesophageal or gastric cancers, and some trials include them with one or the other.
GEJGastro-oesophageal junctionabbreviation: The area where the oesophagus joins the stomach. Tumours here are counted with oesophageal cancer in some trials and with gastric cancer in others, depending on the classification used.
Gemtuzumab ozogamicinGO; Mylotargterm: An antibody-drug conjugate: an antibody that binds CD33, a protein found on most AML cells, linked to a cell-killing drug (calicheamicin).
GHSGGerman Hodgkin Study Groupabbreviation: A research group that runs multicentre trials in Hodgkin lymphoma and defines the early favourable, early unfavourable and advanced risk groups used in its studies.
GIPGemcitabine, ifosfamide, cisplatinabbreviation: A salvage combination of gemcitabine, ifosfamide and cisplatin.
GISTGastrointestinal stromal tumourabbreviation: A sarcoma of the digestive tract. The 1998 reports in this timeline describe GISTs as mesenchymal tumours that express the KIT receptor and may arise from the interstitial cells of Cajal.
Gleason scoreterm: Score from 2 to 10 formed by adding the predominant and the secondary growth pattern seen in prostate cancer tissue, as described in a 2025 review of Gleason's system.
GM-CSFGranulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factorabbreviation: A signalling protein that stimulates immune cells; it was the comparator in the talimogene laherparepvec phase 3 trial and is also produced by the virus in the tumour.
GOGGynecologic Oncology Groupabbreviation: A US cooperative research group in gynaecologic cancers that ran several of the cervical cancer trials in this timeline (GOG-169, GOG-179, GOG-204 and GOG-240).
Gonadal function recoveryGonadal function recoveryendpoint: In the HD21 fertility analysis, the cumulative proportion of patients with recovery of gonadal function after treatment, assessed through follicle-stimulating hormone concentrations. A higher rate is better.
GPRC5DG protein-coupled receptor, family C, group 5, member Dabbreviation: An orphan receptor expressed on malignant plasma cells and the target of the bispecific antibody talquetamab.
Grade 2 or worse neuropathyendpoint: Proportion of women with persisting nerve damage causing symptoms of grade 2 or higher on the toxicity scale used, measured at a stated time after treatment.
Grade 2 or worse peripheral neuropathyendpoint: The share of patients with peripheral neuropathy of grade 2 or higher, as reported in the SCOT trial for the subset with safety data.
Grade 2-5 adverse eventsendpoint: Proportion of patients with at least one adverse event of grade 2 to 5 on the grading scale used by the trial.
Grade 3 or 4 adverse eventsendpoint: The share of patients with at least one adverse event of CTCAE grade 3 or 4, regardless of attribution unless stated.
Grade 3 or 4 adverse eventsendpoint: The share of patients with at least one severe (grade 3) or life-threatening (grade 4) side effect.
Grade 3 or 4 adverse events, overallendpoint: Share of patients with at least one adverse event graded 3 or 4 (severe or life-threatening), as reported for the trial.
Grade 3 or 4 immune-related adverse eventsendpoint: The share of patients with an immune-related adverse event of grade 3 or 4.
Grade 3 or 4 postoperative adverse eventsendpoint: Adverse events graded 3 or 4 (severe or life-threatening) that occur after surgery.
Grade 3 or worse adverse eventsendpoint: The share of patients with at least one adverse event of grade 3 or higher within the stated period.
Grade 3 or worse adverse eventsendpoint: The share of patients with at least one adverse event of grade 3 or higher, meaning severe, life-threatening or fatal.
Grade 3 or worse adverse events within 60 days of surgeryendpoint: Share of patients with at least one adverse event of grade 3 or worse in the first 60 days after surgery.
Grade 3 or worse genitourinary toxicityendpoint: Proportion of women with severe (grade 3 or higher) adverse events affecting the urinary or genital tract.
Grade 3 or worse treatment-related adverse eventsendpoint: The proportion of treated patients with a treatment-related adverse event of grade 3 or higher (severe or worse) on the study's grading scale.
Grade 3 sensory neuropathyendpoint: The share of patients with grade 3 peripheral sensory neuropathy (the oxaliplatin-related nerve toxicity that limits treatment duration).
Grade 3-4 acute toxicityendpoint: The proportion of patients with severe (grade 3 or 4) adverse effects during or shortly after treatment, graded by a standard toxicity scale.
Grade 3-4 febrile neutropeniaendpoint: The proportion of patients with severe (grade 3 or 4) fever together with a low neutrophil count.
Grade 3-4 immune-related adverse eventsendpoint: The proportion of people with severe (grade 3 or 4) side effects caused by immune activation, for example colitis or raised liver enzymes, within a stated period.
Grade 3-4 neuropathyendpoint: The proportion of patients with severe (grade 3 or 4) nerve damage, usually numbness, tingling or weakness in the hands and feet.
Grade Groupterm: Prognostic grouping of Gleason scores into groups 1 to 5, proposed in 2013 and adopted at the 2014 ISUP consensus conference; reported alongside the Gleason score.
GVHDGraft-versus-host diseaseabbreviation: A complication of allogeneic transplantation in which donor immune cells attack the recipient's tissues.
GWASGenome-wide association studyabbreviation: A study that compares common DNA variants across the genome between people with a condition and controls to find variants linked to the condition.
GyGrayabbreviation: The unit of absorbed radiation dose used to describe radiotherapy.
H. pyloriHelicobacter pyloriabbreviation: A spiral bacterium that colonises the stomach lining and causes chronic gastritis; long-term infection is associated with gastric cancer and peptic ulcer disease.
H3 K27M mutationterm: A change at position 27 of a histone H3 protein, where lysine is replaced by methionine, found in some diffuse midline gliomas. The FDA indication for dordaviprone is limited to diffuse midline glioma with this mutation.
HBsAgHepatitis B surface antigenabbreviation: A protein on the surface of the hepatitis B virus. Detectable HBsAg in the blood marks current hepatitis B infection; people who remain HBsAg-positive are called chronic carriers.
HBVHepatitis B virusabbreviation: A virus that infects the liver and is a major cause of hepatocellular carcinoma.
HCCHepatocellular carcinomaabbreviation: The most common type of primary liver cancer, arising from the main liver cells.
hCGHuman chorionic gonadotropinabbreviation: A hormone measured in blood as a tumour marker; it can be raised in some germ cell tumours. Assays commonly measure the beta subunit, written β-hCG.
HCVHepatitis C virusabbreviation: A virus that infects the liver and can cause long-term (chronic) inflammation, cirrhosis and, in some people, liver cancer.
HeLa cellsterm: A human cell line grown from a cervical cancer in 1951 and used in laboratories worldwide; its history is also discussed in the ethics of consent for research with tissue samples.
Hematologic responseendpoint: Improvement in blood and bone marrow counts after treatment. In early imatinib studies of blast crisis the criteria were set by the investigators and are not given in the abstract.
HER2Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2abbreviation: A growth factor receptor encoded by the HER2 gene. In a subset of breast cancers the gene is amplified or the protein is overexpressed; HER2 status is assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in situ hybridisation (ISH).
HGBLHigh-grade B-cell lymphomaabbreviation: A category of aggressive B-cell lymphoma listed beside DLBCL not otherwise specified in several FDA labels and trial eligibility criteria.
HIFHypoxia-inducible factorabbreviation: A family of transcription factors that help cells respond to low oxygen. Their alpha subunits are broken down when oxygen is available and stabilised when it is not.
HIF-2αHypoxia-inducible factor 2 alphaabbreviation: A transcription factor that cells use to respond to low oxygen. The LITESPARK-004 paper describes inactivation of the VHL gene in von Hippel-Lindau disease as leaving HIF-2α constitutively active; belzutifan is an inhibitor of HIF-2α.
High-dose chemotherapy with stem-cell rescueAutologous hematopoietic stem-cell transplantationterm: Chemotherapy at doses that would otherwise destroy the bone marrow, followed by return of the person's own previously collected blood-forming stem cells to restore blood counts.
High-grade dysplasiaterm: A precancerous change in which the cells look markedly abnormal under the microscope but have not invaded surrounding tissue.
HIPECHyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapyabbreviation: Heated chemotherapy solution circulated through the abdominal cavity, given together with cytoreductive surgery.
Histologic responseterm: How much of a tumour is no longer viable (necrotic) when the specimen removed after preoperative chemotherapy is examined under the microscope. Each study sets its own cut-off for a good or poor response.
Histopathologically complete resectionendpoint: The share of resected specimens in which the pathologist judged the resection to be complete.
HLAHuman leukocyte antigenabbreviation: A group of cell-surface proteins that present peptide fragments to T cells; HLA type is a selection criterion for some T-cell receptor therapies, for example HLA-A*02 subtypes in the FDA indication for afamitresgene autoleucel.
HLA-A*02:01term: A variant of the human leukocyte antigen gene, which presents peptides to T cells. The FDA indication for tebentafusp in uveal melanoma is limited to people who are HLA-A*02:01-positive.
HMAHypomethylating agentabbreviation: A drug such as azacitidine or decitabine that alters DNA methylation. Given at lower intensity than standard induction chemotherapy.
HMRNHaematological Malignancy Research Networkabbreviation: A research network in one area of England. Cancer Research UK quotes its relative-survival statistics for subtypes of non-Hodgkin lymphoma diagnosed between 2010 and 2019.
HNSCCHead and neck squamous cell carcinomaabbreviation: Squamous cell carcinoma arising in the oral cavity, pharynx or larynx. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is usually considered separately.
Hospital stay longer than 2 daysendpoint: Proportion of patients who stayed in hospital for more than two days after surgery.
HPVHuman papillomavirusabbreviation: A group of viruses of which some types, notably 16 and 18, can cause cervical and other cancers when infection persists.
HPV 16/18-related CIN 2/3 or worseendpoint: A composite of high-grade cervical precancer (CIN grade 2 or 3), adenocarcinoma in situ or cervical cancer caused by HPV types 16 or 18, used as the primary endpoint of HPV vaccine trials.
HRHazard ratioabbreviation: Compares how often an event (such as progression or death) occurs over time in two groups. A value below 1 means the event happened at a lower rate in the experimental group than in the control group.
HRDHomologous recombination deficiencyabbreviation: A tumour feature in which the main repair route for double-strand DNA breaks does not work well. In these trials it was defined by a BRCA mutation and/or a genomic instability test; each trial and each test sets its own definition.
hrHPVHigh-risk human papillomavirusabbreviation: High-risk human papillomavirus types, the group of HPV types linked to cervical precancer and cancer. Assays differ in which types they detect and report.
HRRHomologous recombination repairabbreviation: A DNA-repair pathway. Alterations in HRR genes such as BRCA1, BRCA2 and ATM are associated with response to PARP inhibitors. The gene panels used to define HRR alteration differ between trials and between regulatory labels.
HRS cellHodgkin and Reed-Sternberg cellabbreviation: The tumour cell population of Hodgkin lymphoma, a small share of the cells in an involved lymph node.
HSCTHematopoietic stem cell transplantationabbreviation: Replacing a person's blood-forming cells with cells from a donor (allogeneic) or, in the case of an identical twin, a genetically identical donor (syngeneic). The cells come from bone marrow or blood.
Humoral theoryterm: The ancient theory, set out in the Hippocratic and Galenic traditions, that health depends on the balance of four body fluids (blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile). It has no modern support.
Hypofractionationterm: Radiotherapy delivered in fewer, larger daily doses (fractions) than conventional schedules.
IALTInternational Adjuvant Lung Cancer Trialabbreviation: A randomised trial of cisplatin-based adjuvant chemotherapy versus observation after complete resection of non-small cell lung cancer.
IBTRIpsilateral breast tumour recurrenceendpoint: Recurrence of breast cancer in the same breast after breast-conserving surgery, reported as a cumulative incidence or a hazard ratio.
ICANSImmune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndromeabbreviation: A set of neurological side effects that can follow treatment with some T-cell-directed therapies, such as confusion, speech difficulty or seizures.
ICANSImmune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndromeabbreviation: A neurological toxicity that can follow CAR T-cell therapy and T-cell-engaging bispecific antibodies, ranging from mild confusion or word-finding difficulty to severe encephalopathy.
ICCInternational Consensus Classificationabbreviation: A 2022 classification of myeloid neoplasms and acute leukaemias that combines morphologic, clinical and genomic data. It was published in the same year as the 5th edition of the WHO classification.
IDEAInternational Duration Evaluation of Adjuvant Chemotherapyabbreviation: A collaboration that pooled six randomised trials, prospectively planned, comparing 3 and 6 months of adjuvant FOLFOX or CAPOX in stage III colon cancer.
iDFSInvasive disease-free survivalendpoint: A disease-free survival variant used in breast cancer trials that counts invasive events and death and does not count in situ disease. Exact event definitions vary between trials.
IDHIsocitrate dehydrogenaseabbreviation: An enzyme encoded by the IDH1 and IDH2 genes. Mutations at specific positions are common in lower-grade gliomas. Tumours without these mutations are called IDH-wildtype.
IDH-wildtypeterm: A tumour without a mutation in the IDH1 or IDH2 genes. The WHO classification recognised IDH-mutant diffuse gliomas in 2016, separating them from glioblastoma, IDH-wildtype.
IDH1/IDH2Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 and 2abbreviation: Genes for metabolic enzymes. Mutations in IDH1 or IDH2 cause cells to make 2-hydroxyglutarate, which blocks normal cell maturation, and are targets of enasidenib (IDH2), ivosidenib and olutasidenib (IDH1).
IDRFImage-defined risk factorsabbreviation: Image-defined risk factors: imaging features of a locoregional neuroblastoma. In the INRG staging system, the presence of one or more of 20 defined factors makes a tumour stage L2.
IESSIntergroup Ewing's Sarcoma Studyabbreviation: A series of cooperative randomised studies of multimodal treatment (chemotherapy with radiotherapy and surgery) for Ewing's sarcoma of bone; IESS-I and IESS-II are the first two.
IFFSImatinib failure-free survivalendpoint: The primary endpoint of the EORTC 62024 adjuvant trial after 2009, described by its authors as time to definitive failure of the first tyrosine kinase inhibitor and as sensitive to secondary resistance. The exact definition is in the EORTC 62024 reports.
IFLIrinotecan, fluorouracil and leucovorinabbreviation: A weekly regimen combining irinotecan with bolus fluorouracil and leucovorin. In the trial that defined it, the schedule was four weeks of treatment in every six.
IFRTInvolved-field radiotherapyabbreviation: Radiotherapy directed at the lymph node regions affected by lymphoma, including the tissue around them.
IGCCCGInternational Germ Cell Cancer Collaborative Groupabbreviation: The group that defined the 1997 prognostic classification of metastatic germ cell tumours into good, intermediate and poor prognosis. The same name is used for the classification itself.
IGHVImmunoglobulin heavy-chain variable region geneabbreviation: The gene segment that codes the antigen-binding part of the antibody heavy chain. In CLL, cells whose IGHV genes carry few somatic mutations (unmutated) are associated with a more aggressive course than cells with mutated IGHV genes.
IHCImmunohistochemistryabbreviation: A laboratory method that scores how strongly a protein such as HER2 is stained in a tumour sample, on a scale of 0 to 3+.
IKZF1abbreviation: The gene that encodes IKAROS, a transcription factor needed for lymphoid development. Alteration of IKZF1 was associated with a poor outcome in B-progenitor ALL.
IL-2Interleukin-2abbreviation: A signalling protein that stimulates T cells. In TIL regimens it is given after the cell infusion, at high dose in the lifileucel, Dutch phase 3 and 2011 NCI regimens described here.
ILDInterstitial lung diseaseabbreviation: Inflammation or scarring of the lung tissue that can be caused by some cancer drugs and can be serious or fatal.
Imaging-based PFSImaging-based progression-free survivalendpoint: Progression-free survival assessed on imaging; the name of the primary end point in the CARD trial of cabazitaxel versus abiraterone or enzalutamide. The exact event definition is set by the trial.
IMDCInternational Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma Database Consortiumabbreviation: A prognostic grouping for metastatic kidney cancer (favourable, intermediate or poor risk) built from clinical and blood-test factors by the International Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma Database Consortium.
IMiDImmunomodulatory drugabbreviation: A drug class that includes thalidomide and its analogue lenalidomide.
Improvement in gastric corpus atrophy gradeendpoint: The share of patients whose histological grade of glandular atrophy in the gastric corpus improved from baseline at the scheduled biopsy.
IMRTIntensity-modulated radiotherapyabbreviation: A radiotherapy technique that shapes the radiation dose to the tumour and varies its intensity across the beam to spare nearby tissue.
IMWGInternational Myeloma Working Groupabbreviation: An international expert group that publishes consensus criteria for diagnosing multiple myeloma and for assessing response to treatment.
Incidence of decompensated cirrhosisendpoint: How often cirrhosis progressed to decompensation (complications such as ascites, variceal bleeding or encephalopathy) during follow-up.
Incidence of hepatocellular carcinomaendpoint: How often new hepatocellular carcinoma was diagnosed during follow-up, reported as a cumulative percentage, a rate per person-years or a hazard ratio, as each study defines it.
Incidence-based mortalityterm: The label SEER gives to the death-rate series on its diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and follicular lymphoma pages. It differs from the 'U.S. Mortality' series used on the SEER non-Hodgkin lymphoma page, and the pages do not define the method further.
Incomplete BCG inductionendpoint: The proportion of patients in whom the planned BCG induction course could not be completed, as reported by the study.
Incomplete BCG maintenanceendpoint: The proportion of patients in whom the planned BCG maintenance treatment was not completed, as reported by the study.
Individual patient data meta-analysisterm: A meta-analysis that pools patient-level data from the included trials rather than only their published summary results.
Induction chemotherapyterm: Chemotherapy given first, before the main treatment (here chemoradiotherapy), with the aim of improving the result of the treatment that follows.
INHANCEInternational Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortiumabbreviation: A consortium that pools individual-level data from case-control studies of head and neck cancer.
INPCInternational Neuroblastoma Pathology Classificationabbreviation: A histopathology classification of neuroblastic tumours based on the Shimada system, proposed in 1999 for international use.
INRCInternational Neuroblastoma Response Criteriaabbreviation: Standardised criteria for judging response to treatment in neuroblastoma, proposed in 1988 and revised in 1993 and again in 2017.
INRGInternational Neuroblastoma Risk Groupabbreviation: An international task force that developed a shared pretreatment classification and staging system for neuroblastoma so that risk-based trials from different regions can be compared.
INRGSSINRG Staging Systemabbreviation: The pretreatment staging system of the INRG: locoregional tumours are L1 or L2 depending on image-defined risk factors, and metastatic disease is M or MS.
INRTInvolved-node radiotherapyabbreviation: Radiotherapy directed at the lymph nodes that were affected by lymphoma, a smaller target than involved-field radiotherapy.
INSSInternational Neuroblastoma Staging Systemabbreviation: A neuroblastoma staging system proposed in 1988 and revised in 1993. It is a postsurgical system, unlike the INRG pretreatment staging.
Intention to screenterm: Analysing everyone in the group they were randomly assigned to (invited or not invited to screening), whether or not they took up the invitation. It estimates the effect of offering screening.
Interferon alfaterm: A protein that signals between immune cells, given by injection as an early drug treatment for metastatic kidney cancer and used as the comparison arm in several later trials.
International scaleterm: A common reporting scale for BCR-ABL1 transcript levels in chronic myeloid leukemia, to which individual laboratories convert their results with a conversion factor so that values can be compared between laboratories.
Interval debulking surgeryterm: Cytoreductive surgery performed after a few cycles of chemotherapy given first (neoadjuvant chemotherapy), followed by the remaining chemotherapy cycles.
Interval-compressed chemotherapyterm: Giving the same chemotherapy cycles closer together (every 14 days instead of every 21 days) with growth-factor support, to increase dose intensity without changing the drugs.
Intracranial clinical benefit rateendpoint: In CheckMate 204, the proportion of people with a complete response, a partial response or stable disease lasting at least 6 months in their brain metastases.
Intracranial response rateendpoint: The proportion of people whose brain metastases shrink by a predefined amount (a complete or partial response) under the criteria set by each study.
Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinomaterm: A cancer that arises from the bile ducts inside the liver. It is a different cancer from hepatocellular carcinoma, but the SEER category 'liver and intrahepatic bile duct' groups cancers of both kinds, so statistics for that category are not specific to hepatocellular carcinoma.
Intraperitoneal chemotherapyterm: Chemotherapy given directly into the abdominal cavity through a catheter, usually together with chemotherapy into a vein. The trials in this timeline compare it with intravenous treatment alone.
Intravesicalterm: Given directly into the bladder through a catheter, so that the drug acts on the bladder lining.
IPIInternational Prognostic Indexabbreviation: A clinical score for aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma. The original 1993 model used age, tumour stage, serum lactate dehydrogenase, performance status and number of extranodal disease sites to define four risk groups.
IRCIndependent review committeeabbreviation: A panel outside the treating centres that assesses progression or response, used for the primary endpoint in several of these trials.
IRFIndependent review facilityabbreviation: A central group of reviewers, separate from the treating teams, who assess scans for tumour response or progression.
Irritation theoryterm: Virchow's 19th-century proposal (Reiztheorie) that chronic irritation or inflammation predisposes to cancer.
IRSIntergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Studyabbreviation: A series of four cooperative-group clinical studies (IRS-I to IRS-IV) of children and young people with rhabdomyosarcoma, run between the early 1970s and the late 1990s.
ISHIn situ hybridisationabbreviation: A laboratory method that detects whether a gene such as HER2 is present in extra copies (amplified) in tumour cells; it is reported as positive or negative.
ISHIn situ hybridisationabbreviation: A laboratory test that detects extra copies of a gene, such as HER2, directly in tumour tissue. It is used together with immunohistochemistry (IHC) to classify HER2 status; the FDA indications for zanidatamab with tislelizumab and chemotherapy name IHC 3+ or IHC 2+/ISH-positive tumours, whereas zanidatamab with chemotherapy alone names IHC 3+ only.
Isolated CNS relapseendpoint: Return of leukemia in the central nervous system without relapse in the bone marrow at the same time, expressed as the cumulative risk by a stated time.
ISRTInvolved-site radiotherapyabbreviation: Radiotherapy aimed at the lymph node areas that were involved before chemotherapy, delivered with modern conformal techniques; it is the radiotherapy volume concept recommended in the EHA 2026 guideline.
ISSInternational Staging Systemabbreviation: A three-stage prognostic system for multiple myeloma based on serum beta-2 microglobulin and serum albumin, published in 2005 from patients who had not yet been treated.
ISUPInternational Society of Urological Pathologyabbreviation: International Society of Urological Pathology.
ITDInternal tandem duplicationabbreviation: A mutation in which a segment of a gene is duplicated within itself. In acute myeloid leukemia, FLT3-ITD is the best known example.
ITTIntention to treatabbreviation: Analysing everyone in the group they were randomized to, whatever treatment they actually received.
iwCLLInternational Workshop on Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemiaabbreviation: The international group whose consensus guidelines define diagnosis, treatment indications and response criteria for CLL in clinical trials and practice.
KarkinosGreek for crabterm: The Greek word for crab, used in Hippocratic writings for tumours (karkinoma for non-healing cancer). It is the origin of the words cancer and carcinoma in medical language.
Karyotypic responseendpoint: In older chronic myeloid leukemia studies, the share of people whose bone marrow cells showed fewer Philadelphia chromosome-positive dividing cells than a set threshold. The Italian interferon trial counted a response when more than 33% of cells examined were Philadelphia chromosome-negative; later studies use different cytogenetic response categories.
KITKIT receptor tyrosine kinase (c-kit gene)abbreviation: A receptor tyrosine kinase normally switched on by stem cell factor. Activating mutations of the KIT gene were found in gastrointestinal stromal tumours in 1998.
KMKaplan–Meierabbreviation: A method for estimating the proportion of people who have not yet had an event over time, while accounting for people whose follow-up ended early (censoring).
KMT2ALysine methyltransferase 2A (formerly MLL)abbreviation: A gene that is rearranged in a subset of leukemias. In the Interfant-06 study, KMT2A rearrangement was the strongest prognostic factor for event-free survival.
KRASabbreviation: A gene whose protein sits downstream of EGFR in the growth-signalling chain. An activating mutation, tested in tumour tissue, keeps the signal switched on whether or not EGFR is blocked. Wild-type means no such mutation was found.
KRAS G12CKRAS gene change replacing glycine with cysteine at position 12abbreviation: A specific KRAS change that dedicated inhibitors such as sotorasib and adagrasib target. The CodeBreaK 300 abstract describes it as occurring in about 3 to 4% of metastatic colorectal cancers.
KRAS G12Cterm: A specific change in the KRAS gene (glycine replaced by cysteine at position 12) found in a subset of non-small cell lung cancers; it is the target of KRAS G12C inhibitors.
LACELung Adjuvant Cisplatin Evaluationabbreviation: A pooled analysis of individual patient data from large trials of postoperative cisplatin-based chemotherapy in resected non-small cell lung cancer.
LAG-3Lymphocyte activation gene-3abbreviation: A receptor that the EMA describes as involved in reducing the immune response. Relatlimab is an antibody that blocks it and is given in a fixed-dose combination with nivolumab.
Laparoscopy completed without conversionendpoint: Proportion of patients in whom a laparoscopic operation was started and finished without changing to an open (laparotomy) operation.
Laryngectomy-free survivalendpoint: Time from randomisation until total laryngectomy or death, whichever comes first; a composite of survival and keeping the larynx.
Larynx preservationendpoint: Proportion of patients alive with their larynx still in place (no laryngectomy) at a stated time, as each trial defines it.
LBCLLarge B-cell lymphomaabbreviation: The grouping used in several FDA labels for lymphomas that include DLBCL not otherwise specified, high-grade B-cell lymphoma and DLBCL arising from follicular lymphoma; some labels also list primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma.
LDACLow-dose cytarabineabbreviation: Cytarabine given at a much lower dose than in intensive chemotherapy, usually by subcutaneous injection.
LDHLactate dehydrogenaseabbreviation: An enzyme measured in blood; it is one of the serum markers used alongside AFP and hCG in germ cell tumours, and it is not specific to them.
Lead-time biasterm: A distortion in survival figures: a cancer found earlier by screening than it would have been from symptoms advances the date of diagnosis, so survival measured from diagnosis looks longer even if the date of death does not change.
Leiomyosarcomaterm: A soft-tissue sarcoma that arises from smooth muscle cells.
LGSOCLow-grade serous ovarian cancerabbreviation: A rare type of ovarian cancer that grows more slowly than high-grade serous cancer, often has changes in the MAPK signalling pathway and responds less often to chemotherapy.
Limb-sparing surgeryterm: Removal of an extremity tumour while keeping the limb, instead of amputation. In the trial described here it was a wide local excision followed by radiotherapy.
Line of therapyterm: A course of treatment given for a period, with a change of regimen when the disease progresses or the treatment is stopped. Drug labels in myeloma often state the number of prior lines, such as at least four, and the definition of a line varies between sources.
Liposarcomaterm: A soft-tissue sarcoma that arises from fat cells (an adipocytic tumour).
Liver cancer mortalityendpoint: Deaths during follow-up, usually as a rate per 100,000 person-years. The Shanghai trial's primary outcome was deaths from hepatocellular carcinoma; the Qidong trial's abstract reports a mortality rate without labelling its cause, and its stated objective is mortality from liver cancer.
Living guidelineterm: A clinical practice guideline that ASCO describes as updated on a regular schedule by a standing expert panel that reviews the literature continuously. Version numbers (for example 2026.3.3) mark each update.
Lobectomyterm: Surgical removal of one lobe of a lung.
Local recurrenceendpoint: Return of cancer at or near the original site (in the conserved breast, or in the chest wall or local tissues after mastectomy), as defined by each trial.
Local recurrence at excision siteendpoint: Return of melanoma in or next to the scar of the original excision, as defined by each trial.
Local-regional controlendpoint: Freedom from recurrence in the primary tumour, involved lobe or regional lymph nodes, estimated actuarially over time.
Locoregional controlendpoint: Time until disease recurs in the bladder or pelvic region; freedom from locoregional recurrence. Exact event definitions are set by the trial.
Locoregional controlendpoint: Absence of cancer progression or recurrence at the primary site and in the regional lymph nodes, reported as a rate at a stated time or as a duration, as each trial defines it.
Locoregional disease-free survivalendpoint: Survival free of disease in the bladder and pelvic region (locoregional recurrence or death count as events). Exact event definitions are set by the trial.
Locoregional failureendpoint: Cancer failure at the primary site or in the pelvis, including an early failure (no resection, apart from organ preservation, or an incomplete resection) and recurrence after a complete resection. Definitions are as stated by each study.
Locoregional failureendpoint: Return or progression of cancer at the primary site or in the regional lymph nodes, as each trial defines it.
Locoregional recurrenceendpoint: Return of the cancer in the pelvis or vagina after surgery, as defined in each trial. In PORTEC-2 the term covers vaginal or pelvic recurrence, or both.
Locoregional recurrence after R0/R1 resectionendpoint: Cancer that returns in the pelvis or at the original surgical site after a resection with no (R0) or only microscopic (R1) residual tumour. Definitions are as stated by each study.
LOHLoss of heterozygosityabbreviation: Loss in a tumour of one of the two inherited copies of a stretch of DNA. In Wilms tumour, loss at chromosomes 1p and 16q is measured on tumour tissue and has been used to estimate the risk of relapse.
Long-term androgen-deprivation therapy startedendpoint: Start of long-term androgen-deprivation therapy during follow-up, reported as the proportion of men in each arm.
Low-dose CTterm: Computed tomography of the chest using a lower radiation dose than diagnostic CT, used to look for lung nodules in screening.
LS-SCLCLimited-stage small-cell lung cancerabbreviation: Small-cell lung cancer confined to one side of the chest in a way that allows radiotherapy to be given to the whole disease area together with chemotherapy; definitions vary slightly between trials.
Lugano classificationterm: The 2014 recommendations for staging and response assessment in Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, which build on Ann Arbor terminology and use PET-CT for lymphomas that take up the FDG tracer.
Lung cancer mortalityendpoint: Deaths attributed to lung cancer in all randomised people, reported as a rate per person-years or a rate ratio. It is counted in everyone assigned to a group, not only in people diagnosed with lung cancer.
LV5FU2Leucovorin with bolus and infusional fluorouracilabbreviation: A fluorouracil regimen that adds leucovorin and gives fluorouracil as a bolus plus a continuous infusion over two days, repeated every two weeks.
LVILymphovascular invasionabbreviation: Tumour cells seen in lymphatic or blood vessels of the primary tumour, a risk factor for relapse in stage I non-seminoma.
LVSILymphovascular space invasionabbreviation: Cancer cells seen inside lymphatic or blood vessels in the tumour specimen. It is a pathological risk factor for recurrence.
Lymph node metastases found at surgeryendpoint: Proportion of patients in whom lymph node metastases were found at the operation. This measures how much nodal spread the surgery identified (staging yield), not a better outcome for the patient.
Lymphadenectomyterm: Surgical removal of lymph nodes. In endometrial cancer it is done in the pelvis (pelvic lymphadenectomy) and sometimes around the aorta (para-aortic lymphadenectomy) to find out whether cancer has spread to nodes.
Lymphedemaendpoint: Swelling of a limb or body area from impaired lymph drainage, a recognised after-effect of removing lymph nodes.
Lynch syndrometerm: An inherited condition caused by changes in DNA mismatch repair genes that raises the risk of colorectal, endometrial and some other cancers. Earlier names include hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC).
Macrovascular invasionterm: Growth of a liver tumour into a large blood vessel of the liver, such as a branch of the portal vein. It is recorded as a feature of more advanced disease and is an entry criterion in some trials.
MAGE-A4Melanoma-associated antigen A4abbreviation: A tumour-associated antigen found in some cancers, including some synovial sarcomas; tumour expression of MAGE-A4 is one of the selection criteria in the FDA indication for afamitresgene autoleucel.
MaHRMajor hematologic responseendpoint: In advanced-phase chronic myeloid leukemia and Philadelphia-chromosome-positive ALL, a category of hematologic response used as a response measure in the ponatinib PACE trial. The exact criteria are set by each study and are not given in the abstracts.
Maintenance therapyterm: Treatment given after a response to chemotherapy, with the aim of delaying progression of the cancer. The trials in this timeline compare it with placebo or with the same background treatment.
Major pathological responseendpoint: Ten percent or less residual viable tumour in the resected specimen after neoadjuvant treatment.
MAPMethotrexate, doxorubicin (Adriamycin) and cisplatinabbreviation: The three-drug chemotherapy combination (high-dose methotrexate with doxorubicin and cisplatin) used as the backbone in the osteosarcoma trials described here.
MAPIEMAP plus ifosfamide and etoposideabbreviation: The four-drug osteosarcoma regimen formed by adding ifosfamide and etoposide to MAP, tested in EURAMOS-1 for patients whose tumour responded poorly to preoperative chemotherapy.
mAPMN/SMetastatic androgen pathway modulation-naive or -sensitive prostate cancerabbreviation: The wording the FDA used in June and July 2026 for the setting its notices say was previously called metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer.
mCR rateMetastatic complete response rateendpoint: The proportion of patients whose metastatic disease (in bone, bone marrow and other sites) shows a complete response after treatment.
mCRCMetastatic colorectal cancerabbreviation: Colorectal cancer that has spread beyond the bowel and nearby lymph nodes to other organs.
mCRPCMetastatic castration-resistant prostate cancerabbreviation: Prostate cancer that has spread beyond the prostate and continues to progress despite androgen deprivation therapy.
MCyRMajor cytogenetic responseendpoint: In chronic myeloid leukemia, 0–35% of dividing bone marrow cells still carry the Philadelphia chromosome.
MDADIMD Anderson Dysphagia Inventoryabbreviation: A questionnaire in which patients rate how swallowing difficulty affects their quality of life.
MDSMyelodysplastic syndromesabbreviation: A group of conditions in which the bone marrow produces too few blood cells. In some cases MDS can lead to AML.
MEK inhibitorterm: A drug that blocks MEK, a protein in the MAPK signalling pathway. Trametinib and binimetinib are MEK inhibitors; avutometinib blocks both RAF and MEK.
Melanoma locoregional recurrenceendpoint: Return of melanoma at the site of the original excision, as in-transit disease or in the regional lymph nodes, counted as the first event. The exact definition is set by each trial.
MEN 2AMultiple endocrine neoplasia type 2Aabbreviation: A dominantly inherited cancer syndrome characterised by medullary thyroid carcinoma and phaeochromocytoma; germline RET mutations are found in affected families.
Men with any PSA testing during the trialendpoint: Estimated proportion of men in an arm who had any PSA test during the trial period, whether inside or outside the trial protocol. A process measure of contamination, not a clinical outcome.
Menin inhibitorterm: A medicine that inhibits menin, a protein. The FDA has approved revumenib for relapsed or refractory acute leukemia with a KMT2A translocation and for relapsed or refractory AML with a susceptible NPM1 mutation, and ziftomenib for relapsed or refractory AML with a susceptible NPM1 mutation.
MET exon 14 skippingterm: A group of MET gene changes that cause exon 14 to be left out of the messenger RNA, leaving the MET receptor overactive. It occurs in a small subset of non-small cell lung cancers and is targeted by MET inhibitors.
Metachronous gastric cancerendpoint: A new gastric cancer arising at another site in the stomach after treatment of a first early gastric cancer, counted over follow-up.
Metastasesendpoint: Development of cancer spread to distant sites during follow-up, as recorded and defined by each study; reported here as the proportion of men in each arm.
Metastasis-free survivalendpoint: Time without distant metastasis. The events counted (for example, whether death from any cause counts) are defined by each study.
mFOLFIRINOXModified FOLFIRINOXabbreviation: FOLFIRINOX with dose changes, as defined in each trial, to reduce toxicity.
mFOLFOX6Modified FOLFOX6abbreviation: A chemotherapy regimen of oxaliplatin, leucovorin (folinic acid) and fluorouracil given every two weeks.
MFSMetastasis-free survivalendpoint: Time from randomization until distant metastasis is detected on imaging or the person dies, as each trial defines it. In non-metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer and biochemical recurrence trials the definition of metastasis and the imaging used differ between studies.
MGMTO6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferaseabbreviation: A DNA-repair enzyme that limits the killing of tumour cells by alkylating agents such as temozolomide and carmustine. When the gene's promoter is methylated, the gene is silenced; this is tested in tumour tissue.
mHSPCMetastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancerabbreviation: Metastatic prostate cancer that has not yet become castration resistant; also called metastatic castration-sensitive prostate cancer (mCSPC).
MIBCMuscle-invasive bladder cancerabbreviation: Bladder cancer that has grown into or beyond the muscle layer of the bladder wall (stage T2 or higher).
MIBGMetaiodobenzylguanidineabbreviation: A radiolabelled compound used for scans that show neuroblastoma tissue; in the revised response criteria these scans assess soft tissue and bone disease.
Micro-CTMicro-computed tomographyterm: High-resolution X-ray computed tomography used to build three-dimensional images of small specimens, including fossil bone, without cutting them.
Microsatellite instabilityterm: Changes in the length of short repeated DNA sequences in a tumour, usually because the cell cannot repair DNA copying mistakes.
miRNAMicroRNAabbreviation: A short RNA molecule that helps regulate gene activity and can be measured in blood; miR-371a-3p is one studied as a germ cell tumour marker.
MKIMitosis-karyorrhexis indexabbreviation: A pathologist's measure of how many neuroblastic tumour cells are dividing or show nuclear fragmentation; one of the features in the Shimada and INPC classifications.
MMRMajor molecular responseendpoint: In chronic myeloid leukemia, BCR-ABL1 transcript levels at or below 0.1% on the international scale.
Modeled trendterm: On SEER Cancer Stat Facts tables, a smoothed line fitted to the yearly values with Joinpoint software. It differs from the 'observed' value for any single year, which can fluctuate when the number of cases is small.
Moderate or severe lethargy at 4 weeksPatient-reported moderate or severe lethargy four weeks after starting treatmentendpoint: Share of patients reporting moderate or severe lethargy on a symptom diary card four weeks after starting radiotherapy.
Moderate to severe postoperative adverse eventsendpoint: Proportion of patients with a postoperative adverse event graded moderate or severe, over the postoperative period and grading scheme defined by each study.
Molecular recurrenceendpoint: A rise in BCR-ABL1 transcript levels back above a study-defined threshold, such as loss of major molecular response, after a period of response. Definitions differ between studies.
Mollities ossiumterm: A historical name for softening and fragility of the bones, used in 1840s case reports. Macintyre's 1850 case report, read in its 1851 reprint, does not use the word myeloma.
MOPPMechlorethamine, vincristine, procarbazine, prednisoneabbreviation: A four-drug combination chemotherapy regimen for Hodgkin disease.
Mortality within 60 days of surgeryendpoint: Share of patients who died within 60 days after the operation.
MPMelphalan plus prednisoneabbreviation: A regimen of the drug melphalan with the corticosteroid prednisone, used as the comparator in several myeloma trials on this site.
MP-MRIMultiparametric magnetic resonance imagingabbreviation: Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging of the prostate.
MPAMedroxyprogesterone acetateabbreviation: A hormone-type tablet (medroxyprogesterone acetate) used as the comparison treatment in a Medical Research Council trial of interferon-alpha in metastatic kidney cancer.
mPFSModified progression-free survivalendpoint: A progression-free survival variant used as the primary endpoint of ECHELON-1: an event is progression, death, or a less than complete response at the end of frontline treatment followed by new anticancer therapy. It is not the same as conventional PFS.
MPRMajor pathological responseendpoint: The proportion of people whose resected tumour shows little remaining viable cancer after treatment before surgery. The exact threshold and the assessment method are set by each trial.
MPRMajor pathological responseendpoint: Little viable tumour left in the resected tissue after treatment given before surgery. Trials set the threshold; in the PRADO cohort it was 10% or less viable tumour in the index lymph node.
MPTMelphalan, prednisone and thalidomideabbreviation: Melphalan plus prednisone with thalidomide added.
MR4.5Molecular response 4.5endpoint: In chronic myeloid leukemia, BCR-ABL1 transcript levels at or below 0.0032% on the international scale, a 4.5-log reduction from baseline.
MRCPMagnetic resonance cholangiopancreatographyabbreviation: MRI technique that shows the bile and pancreatic ducts.
MRDMeasurable residual diseaseendpoint: Cancer cells that remain after treatment but are detectable only with highly sensitive tests.
MRD-negative remission rateendpoint: The proportion of patients in remission whose measurable residual disease is below the trial's stated threshold on a sensitive test such as flow cytometry. Thresholds and denominators differ between trials.
MRFSMolecular relapse-free survivalendpoint: The proportion of people who have not had a molecular relapse at a given time after stopping treatment. The definition of molecular relapse is set by each study (for example loss of major molecular response).
MSI-HMicrosatellite instability-highabbreviation: A tumour test result that reflects a high number of errors in short repeated DNA sequences, usually from mismatch repair deficiency.
MSKCC riskMemorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center prognostic modelterm: A prognostic model for metastatic kidney cancer from the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center that sorts people into favourable, intermediate or poor risk groups; trials often use it to stratify randomisation.
MSSMelanoma-specific survivalendpoint: Survival counted until death from melanoma, so deaths from other causes are not events. How such deaths are attributed is defined by each trial.
mt-sDNAMultitarget stool DNA testabbreviation: A stool test that looks for altered DNA markers from colorectal neoplasia together with hidden blood. A positive result is followed by colonoscopy.
mt-sRNAMultitarget stool RNA testabbreviation: A stool test that looks for RNA markers associated with colorectal neoplasia. A positive result is followed by colonoscopy.
MTCMedullary thyroid cancerabbreviation: A type of thyroid cancer, separate from the differentiated and anaplastic types. It can be sporadic or hereditary, and RET mutations are common in it.
mTOR inhibitorMammalian target of rapamycin inhibitorterm: A drug that blocks the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) kinase, a protein involved in cell growth and in the response to low oxygen; temsirolimus and everolimus are examples.
MTPMuramyl tripeptide (liposomal)abbreviation: Muramyl tripeptide encapsulated in liposomes, an immune-stimulating agent tested with chemotherapy in INT-0133. The EU-authorised medicine is named mifamurtide (Mepact).
MVACMethotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin, cisplatinabbreviation: A chemotherapy combination of methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin (Adriamycin) and cisplatin, given in cycles.
MYCNterm: A gene present in extra copies (amplification) in a subset of neuroblastoma tumours. It was called N-myc in the 1980s reports. Amplification is measured on tumour tissue and is one of the factors used in risk classification.
Myocardial infarction after treatmentendpoint: Heart attacks occurring after treatment for testicular cancer, compared between treatment groups or with general-population rates. Cohorts differ in how events were found and in the years of treatment.
NACNeoadjuvant chemotherapyabbreviation: Chemotherapy given before surgery, here used in the FOxTROT trial for colon cancer.
NALIRIFOXLiposomal irinotecan, oxaliplatin, fluorouracil and leucovorinabbreviation: A four-drug chemotherapy regimen like FOLFIRINOX but with irinotecan given in a liposomal form.
NCCNNational Comprehensive Cancer Networkabbreviation: A US non-profit alliance of cancer centres that publishes clinical practice guidelines in oncology, which are revised in numbered versions.
NCCR*ExplorerNational Childhood Cancer Registry Explorerterm: An interactive NCI website for statistics from the National Childhood Cancer Registry. The PDQ summaries cite it for several childhood survival figures; it was not queried directly for this page.
NCI risk groupterm: A classification of childhood ALL into standard risk and high risk by age and white-cell count at diagnosis, agreed at an NCI workshop in 1993. For B-precursor ALL, standard risk is age 1 to 9 years with a count below 50,000 per microlitre.
NDANew drug applicationabbreviation: An application to the US FDA for approval of a new drug, or of a supplement adding a new use to an approved drug.
Neck node recurrence-free survivalendpoint: Time without recurrence in the neck lymph nodes, reported by the sentinel node trial as a proportion at 2 years.
Negative predictive valueNegative predictive value of a testendpoint: Proportion of negative test results that correspond to absence of viable tumour.
NELSONabbreviation: Dutch-Belgian randomised trial comparing volume-based low-dose CT screening with no screening in people at high risk of lung cancer.
Neoadjuvantterm: Treatment given before the main treatment, here before surgery, for example to shrink a tumour or treat microscopic spread early.
Neoadjuvantterm: Treatment given before the main treatment, here before surgery.
Nephron-sparing surgeryterm: Removal of a kidney tumour together with a margin while leaving the rest of the kidney in place (partial nephrectomy).
Net survivalterm: A survival measure that estimates survival from the cancer alone, taking into account that some people would have died from other causes, as Cancer Research UK describes it. It is not the same measure as the relative survival used by SEER or the Haematological Malignancy Research Network.
Neuroblastomaterm: A childhood cancer of immature nerve cells of the sympathetic nervous system, most often arising in the adrenal gland or along the spine. It ranges from tumours that regress or are managed by observation or surgery alone to aggressive metastatic disease, which is why treatment is chosen by risk group.
NHLNon-Hodgkin lymphomaabbreviation: A group of lymphomas that are not Hodgkin lymphoma. Most types form from B cells and can be indolent (slow-growing) or aggressive (fast-growing); diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and follicular lymphoma are the two types this page covers.
NIFTPNoninvasive follicular thyroid neoplasm with papillary-like nuclear featuresabbreviation: The name adopted in 2016 for encapsulated follicular variant papillary tumours without invasion, which had a very low rate of adverse outcomes.
NLSTNational Lung Screening Trialabbreviation: US randomised trial comparing three annual screens with low-dose CT or chest radiography in people at high risk of lung cancer.
NMIBCNon-muscle-invasive bladder cancerabbreviation: Non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer: urothelial tumours confined to the lining (stage Ta or carcinoma in situ) or the tissue just beneath it (stage T1), without growth into the bladder muscle.
No evidence of disease at follow-upendpoint: The proportion of patients with no sign of bladder cancer at the follow-up reported by a study, as the study defines it.
No residual disease at cystectomyendpoint: The proportion of patients whose cystectomy specimen contained no residual cancer, as reported in the original trial publication; the definition (for example, whether non-invasive disease counts) is not given in the abstract.
Nocturiaendpoint: Needing to pass urine at least twice per night, patient-reported.
Non-covalent BTK inhibitorterm: A Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitor that does not act by forming a covalent bond with the enzyme. Pirtobrutinib is an example; its FDA label describes it as an ATP-competitive inhibitor of BTK.
Non-inferiorityterm: A trial design that tests whether a treatment is not worse than the standard by more than a margin chosen in advance. A result that fails to show non-inferiority does not by itself show that the treatment is worse.
Non-testicular-cancer mortalityendpoint: Deaths from any cause other than the testicular cancer itself, including second cancers, heart disease and suicide, compared with expected deaths in the general population or between treatment groups.
NPCNasopharyngeal carcinomaabbreviation: Cancer arising in the nasopharynx, the upper part of the throat behind the nose. It has different causes and treatment from other head and neck squamous cell carcinomas.
NPCRNational Program of Cancer Registriesabbreviation: The cancer registry programme of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Its data, with SEER data, supply the CBTRUS statistics.
NPM1Nucleophosmin 1abbreviation: A gene that is mutated in a large share of acute myeloid leukemias; NPM1-mutated disease is one of the targets of menin inhibitors.
NRG1 fusionterm: A rearrangement that joins the NRG1 gene to another gene. It is a rare finding in non-small cell lung cancer; FDA's list of ongoing accelerated approvals includes an NRG1-fusion indication for this cancer.
NSCLCNon-small cell lung cancerabbreviation: Lung cancers other than small cell lung cancer, reported in many trials as one group with histology and stage as separate factors.
NSGCTNon-seminomatous germ-cell tumourabbreviation: Testicular germ-cell tumours other than pure seminoma, such as embryonal carcinoma, yolk sac tumour, choriocarcinoma and teratoma.
NSGCTNonseminomatous germ cell tumourabbreviation: A germ cell tumour that is not a pure seminoma, such as embryonal carcinoma, yolk sac tumour, choriocarcinoma or teratoma, or a mixture.
NSMPNo specific molecular profileabbreviation: Endometrial cancers that are not POLE-mutated, mismatch repair deficient or p53 abnormal. One of the four molecular classes.
NTRKNeurotrophic receptor tyrosine kinase genesabbreviation: Genes that encode the tropomyosin receptor kinases TRKA, TRKB and TRKC. Fusions that involve one of them occur in many tumour types in adults and children and are targeted by TRK inhibitors such as larotrectinib and entrectinib.
Number needed to screenterm: The number of people who must be screened to prevent one death, calculated as the reciprocal of the absolute reduction in risk of death.
NWTSNational Wilms' Tumor Studyabbreviation: A series of five cooperative-group studies of Wilms tumour in North America (NWTS-1 to NWTS-5). The NWTS group is now part of the Children's Oncology Group.
ODACOncologic Drugs Advisory Committeeabbreviation: A panel of outside experts that advises the US Food and Drug Administration on cancer drugs.
ODACOncologic Drugs Advisory Committeeabbreviation: The advisory committee that gives the US Food and Drug Administration non-binding advice on cancer drugs and endpoints.
ODACOncologic Drugs Advisory Committeeabbreviation: The advisory committee that gives the US Food and Drug Administration non-binding advice on cancer drug applications.
Oncolytic virusterm: A virus engineered or selected to replicate in tumour cells and, in the products described here, to stimulate an immune response against the tumour. It is injected into tumour lesions.
Opportunistic salpingectomyterm: Removal of the fallopian tubes, leaving the ovaries in place, during another planned operation such as hysterectomy or instead of tubal ligation, with the aim of lowering the later risk of ovarian cancer.
OROdds ratioabbreviation: A measure of how strongly a factor, such as a gene variant, is associated with an outcome; a value above 1 means higher odds of the outcome.
Oral persistent HPV infectionterm: Detection of the same HPV type in the mouth and throat on repeated samples; the sampling interval and definition are set by each study. It is the endpoint named in the FDA letter for the vaccine indication against HPV-related head and neck cancer.
ORRObjective response rateendpoint: The proportion of people whose tumour shrinks by a predefined amount (a complete or partial response) under criteria such as RECIST.
OSOverall survivalendpoint: Time from randomization (or the start of treatment) until death from any cause.
Osteosarcomaterm: A malignant tumour that arises in bone and produces bone-like tissue. Parosteal osteosarcoma is a variant that forms on the surface of the bone.
Ovarian cancer mortalityendpoint: Deaths attributed to ovarian cancer (in the screening trials, including fallopian tube and primary peritoneal cancers, and in UKCTOCS 2021 tubal cancer), compared between screened and unscreened groups.
Overall remission rateendpoint: The proportion of patients with leukemia who reach complete remission, or complete remission with incomplete blood count recovery, within a stated time after treatment.
Overall remission rateendpoint: The proportion of patients with leukemia who reach complete remission, or complete remission with incomplete blood count recovery, within a stated time after treatment.
Overall severe (grade 3-5) toxicity eventsendpoint: Mean number of grade 3 to 5 toxicity events per patient, acute and late combined, at a stated time after treatment.
Overall survival at 18 monthsendpoint: The share of patients alive 18 months after randomisation.
Overdiagnosisterm: Detection, through screening, of a cancer that would never have caused symptoms or death. It adds to incidence and survival figures without changing length of life; the size of the effect for breast screening is debated.
p53abnp53 abnormalterm: Endometrial cancers with an abnormal pattern of p53 protein staining on immunohistochemistry (null or missense-mutation pattern). One of the four molecular classes.
Pack-yearterm: A measure of cumulative smoking: the number of packs smoked per day multiplied by the number of years smoked.
Pancreaticoduodenectomyterm: Operation that removes the head of the pancreas together with the duodenum and neighbouring structures; often called the Whipple procedure.
Pap smearterm: A sample of cells taken from the cervix and examined under the microscope for precancerous or cancerous change, named for George Papanicolaou. It is also called the Pap test.
PARPopulation attributable riskabbreviation: An estimate of the share of cases in a population that is associated with an exposure, under the assumptions of the study. It is not a measure of individual risk.
Para-aortic lymphadenectomyterm: Surgical removal of lymph nodes beside the aorta in the upper abdomen, used to stage cancers that can spread there, including some cervical cancers.
Parenthood incidenceCumulative incidence of parenthoodendpoint: In the HD21 fertility analysis, the cumulative incidence of parenthood after treatment, as reported by the trial. A higher rate is better.
PARP inhibitorPoly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitorterm: A targeted drug class that blocks DNA-repair enzymes and is used for cancers with defects in homologous recombination repair, such as those with BRCA1 or BRCA2 pathogenic variants.
Pathogenetic typeterm: Bokhman's 1983 term for two groups of endometrial carcinoma that he distinguished by the hormonal and metabolic setting in which they arose and by tumour behaviour.
Pathological responseendpoint: Response of the tumour to neoadjuvant treatment as judged by the pathologist in the resected specimen; the threshold is defined by each study.
Pathological response rateendpoint: The proportion of people whose resected tissue shows a pathological response (much or all of the tumour no longer viable) after treatment given before surgery. Each trial defines the threshold.
PCIPeritoneal Cancer Indexabbreviation: A score of the extent of tumour spread within the abdominal cavity that is used to select patients for cytoreductive surgery.
PCIProphylactic cranial irradiationabbreviation: Radiotherapy to the whole brain given to people without known brain metastases, with the aim of preventing them.
pCRPathological complete responseendpoint: The proportion of people with no residual invasive cancer in the surgical specimen after treatment given before surgery. Precise definitions vary between trials.
PD-1Programmed death 1abbreviation: A protein on T cells that acts as a brake on their activation; antibodies that block it are used as immune checkpoint treatment.
PD-L1Programmed death ligand 1abbreviation: A protein on tumor and immune cells that can restrain immune attack by binding PD-1; its measured level (by an assay-specific score such as CPS or the immune-cell percentage) is used to select patients for PD-1 and PD-L1 inhibitors.
PDACPancreatic ductal adenocarcinomaabbreviation: The most common type of pancreatic cancer, arising from the cells lining the pancreatic ducts. Most trials in this timeline enrolled people with this type.
PDACPancreatic ductal adenocarcinomaabbreviation: The most common type of pancreatic cancer, arising from the cells lining the pancreatic ducts.
PDGFR-alphaterm: Platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha, a receptor on the cell surface that olaratumab was designed to block.
PDGFRAPlatelet-derived growth factor receptor alphaabbreviation: A receptor tyrosine kinase related to KIT. Activating PDGFRA mutations were reported in gastrointestinal stromal tumours that lack KIT mutations.
PDQPhysician Data Queryabbreviation: The National Cancer Institute's evidence summaries on cancer treatment, prevention and screening. The Health Professional versions of the neuroblastoma and Wilms tumour treatment summaries are used on this page for population statistics because the SEER Cancer Stat Facts pages have no entry for either cancer.
PDUFA datePrescription Drug User Fee Act goal dateabbreviation: The target date by which the US FDA aims to act on a drug or biologic application. It is a review deadline, not a decision, and it can be extended.
Pelvic and para-aortic lymph-node recurrenceendpoint: Return of the cancer in lymph nodes of the pelvis or along the aorta, reported by GOG-258 as a 5-year incidence.
Pelvic recurrenceendpoint: Return of the cancer within the pelvis after surgery, reported as the proportion of people with a pelvic recurrence by a given time. Each trial sets its own definition.
Per-protocol analysisterm: An analysis that estimates the effect among people who actually received the intervention, usually with statistical adjustment for who took it up. It depends on assumptions and is not a randomised comparison.
Perioperativeterm: Treatment given both before and after surgery as one planned course.
Perioperative treatmentterm: Treatment given both before surgery (neoadjuvant) and after surgery (adjuvant) as one planned course.
Peripheral sensory neuropathy lasting 3 yearsendpoint: The share of patients with peripheral sensory neuropathy of any grade lasting for three years, as reported in the ACHIEVE trial.
Persistent HPV infectionendpoint: HPV infection with the same vaccine-targeted type detected on more than one occasion over a defined period. Vaccine trials use it as a surrogate for precancer and cancer; definitions differ between trials.
Person-yearsterm: The total follow-up time of all people in a group added together, used as the denominator of an event rate.
PETPositron emission tomographyabbreviation: An imaging scan that shows where a radioactive sugar tracer (FDG) is taken up in the body; in lymphoma it is used to judge how active the disease remains during or after treatment.
PET-2PET scan after two chemotherapy cyclesabbreviation: An interim PET scan done after the second cycle of treatment to see how active the lymphoma remains.
PFSProgression-free survivalendpoint: Time from randomization until the cancer progresses or the person dies from any cause, whichever comes first.
Ph-like ALLPhiladelphia chromosome-like acute lymphoblastic leukemiaabbreviation: B-cell ALL whose gene-expression profile resembles Ph+ ALL without the BCR::ABL1 fusion, often with alterations that activate kinase or cytokine-receptor signalling.
Ph+Philadelphia chromosome-positiveabbreviation: Describes leukemia cells that carry the Philadelphia chromosome, the product of a translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22 that creates the BCR::ABL1 fusion gene. Regulatory labels for CML are written for Ph+ disease.
Philadelphia chromosomePh chromosometerm: A shortened chromosome 22 found in the leukemia cells of most people with chronic myeloid leukemia, formed by an exchange of material between chromosomes 9 and 22.
PI3KPhosphatidylinositol 3-kinaseabbreviation: A family of signalling enzymes that support the growth and survival of B cells; inhibitors of PI3K were approved and later withdrawn for relapsed follicular lymphoma.
PI3K inhibitorPhosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitorterm: A drug that blocks PI3K signalling in B cells. Idelalisib acts on the delta isoform; duvelisib acts on the delta and gamma isoforms.
PIK3CAabbreviation: A gene encoding the catalytic subunit of PI3K alpha; activating mutations occur in a substantial minority of hormone-receptor-positive breast cancers and are a target for PI3K pathway inhibitors.
Plasma cellterm: A white blood cell, normally found in the bone marrow, that makes antibodies. Myeloma is a cancer of plasma cells.
Platform trialterm: A trial design in which several treatments or strategies can be tested within one protocol, with questions added, changed or dropped over time.
Platinum-free intervalterm: The time from the end of the last platinum-based chemotherapy to the return or progression of the cancer. Treatment choices in recurrent ovarian cancer depend on it; the ESMO Express Update defines platinum-resistant disease, for its recommendation on mirvetuximab soravtansine, as a platinum-free interval under 6 months.
Platinum-resistantterm: Ovarian cancer that progresses soon after platinum-based chemotherapy ended. AURELIA used progression less than 6 months after completing platinum-based therapy.
Platinum-sensitiveterm: Ovarian cancer that comes back some months after platinum-based chemotherapy ended. Each trial sets its own interval; OCEANS used recurrence 6 months or more after front-line platinum-based therapy.
PLCOProstate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trialabbreviation: Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial (its prostate component is described here).
PMAPremarket approvalabbreviation: Premarket approval, the US Food and Drug Administration pathway for high-risk medical devices, including some HPV tests. Changes to an approved device are approved as PMA supplements.
PMAPremarket approvalabbreviation: The US FDA pathway for approval of higher-risk medical devices, including some cancer screening tests. It is separate from drug approval.
PML-RARAterm: The fusion gene produced by the 15;17 translocation in APL, joining the PML gene on chromosome 15 to the retinoic acid receptor alpha gene (RARA) on chromosome 17. Its transcript can be followed by PCR to monitor response.
pMMRMismatch repair proficientabbreviation: Tumours whose mismatch repair proteins are intact. Such tumours are usually microsatellite-stable (MSS) and are the more common group in endometrial cancer trials. Immunotherapy trials report them separately from dMMR tumours.
Pneumonectomyterm: Surgical removal of an entire lung.
POLEmutPOLE-mutated (ultramutated)term: Endometrial cancers with a mutation in the exonuclease domain of the POLE gene, which leads to a very high number of mutations (ultramutated). One of the four molecular classes.
Polypectomyterm: Removal of a polyp, usually during colonoscopy.
Positive predictive valuePositive predictive value of a testendpoint: Proportion of positive test results that correspond to viable tumour.
Positive screening test rateendpoint: Proportion of screening tests classified as positive (suspicious for lung cancer) across the screening rounds. It counts tests, not people, and a higher rate means more follow-up work as well as more detection.
Postmarketing requirementterm: A study that the FDA requires a company to carry out after approval, for example to confirm clinical benefit after an accelerated approval.
Postoperative adverse events of grade 3 or higherendpoint: Proportion of patients with a postoperative adverse event of grade 3 or higher on the grading scale used by the study.
Postoperative complicationsendpoint: Complications that follow an operation; SCORPION counted major postoperative complications.
PPVPositive predictive valueabbreviation: The proportion of people with a positive test who truly have the condition. It depends on how common the condition is among the people tested.
Primary completion dateterm: The date a trial registry lists for collecting the final data for the primary outcome. It is a registry field and is often an estimate that is revised; it is not a result.
Primary HPV screeningterm: Using a test for high-risk HPV as the first screening test, with cytology or colposcopy reserved for people who test positive, depending on the programme.
Primary tumour and involved-lobe controlendpoint: Freedom from recurrence in the treated primary tumour or the lobe containing it, estimated actuarially over time.
Primary tumour controlendpoint: Freedom from failure of the treated primary tumour, estimated actuarially over time; each trial defines what counts as failure.
Progression to stage T2 or higherendpoint: The proportion of patients whose cancer progressed from non-muscle-invasive disease to stage T2 or higher (invasion of the bladder muscle or beyond) during follow-up.
Progressive diseaseendpoint: Time to documented progression of the cancer; here reported as a hazard ratio for progressive disease.
ProMisEProactive Molecular Risk Classifier for Endometrial Cancerterm: A decision-tree classifier that assigns endometrial cancers to the four molecular classes using mismatch repair immunohistochemistry, POLE mutation analysis and p53 immunohistochemistry.
Proportion with local relapseendpoint: Share of patients with a local relapse, as each trial defines it; a crude proportion, not a time-to-event estimate.
Prostate cancer mortalityendpoint: Deaths attributed to prostate cancer, reported as a rate ratio, a rate per person-years or a cumulative percentage depending on the study; cause-of-death attribution rules differ between trials.
Prostate cancer-specific survivalendpoint: Proportion of men who have not died of prostate cancer at the stated time; deaths from other causes are not counted as events. Definitions of cause of death differ between studies.
Proteasome inhibitorterm: A drug that blocks the proteasome, the cell structure that breaks down proteins. Bortezomib and carfilzomib are the proteasome inhibitors mentioned on these cards.
PSAProstate-specific antigenabbreviation: Prostate-specific antigen, a protein made by the prostate that can be measured in blood.
PSA doubling timeProstate-specific antigen doubling timeterm: The time it takes for the blood PSA level to double; a short doubling time (for example 10 months or less in SPARTAN, PROSPER and ARAMIS) marks a higher risk of metastasis.
PSA response rateProportion of participants with a PSA fall of at least 50% from baselineendpoint: The share of participants whose prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level falls by at least half from the pre-treatment value. It is a biochemical measure and is not the same as survival or radiographic control.
Pseudoleukaemiaterm: A term in use from the 1860s into the early twentieth century (Reed 1902 attributes it to Cohnheim, 1865) for enlarged lymph nodes and spleen without the blood changes of leukaemia; it grouped Hodgkin's disease with other conditions.
PSMAProstate-specific membrane antigenabbreviation: A cell-surface protein that is highly expressed in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. It is the target of PSMA PET imaging, used to select patients, and of PSMA-directed radioligand therapy such as 177Lu-PSMA-617.
PTCPapillary thyroid carcinomaabbreviation: The most common type of thyroid cancer, arising from the follicular cells of the thyroid gland.
PTENPhosphatase and tensin homologabbreviation: A tumour-suppressor gene and protein; loss of PTEN in prostate cancer cells is detected by an immunohistochemistry test and has been used to select people for capivasertib.
PTMCPapillary thyroid microcarcinomaabbreviation: A papillary thyroid cancer measuring 10 mm or less in its largest diameter.
Purine analogueterm: A class of chemotherapy drugs, including fludarabine, that mimic purine building blocks of DNA and interfere with DNA synthesis in lymphocytes.
PVBCisplatin (platinum), vinblastine, bleomycinabbreviation: The combination of cisplatin, vinblastine and bleomycin used before etoposide replaced vinblastine.
Quality of life at month 7endpoint: Patient-reported quality of life measured with scales chosen by the trial, about 6 months after the end of the induction treatment (month 7 from randomisation).
R-CHOPRituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisoneabbreviation: A chemoimmunotherapy regimen: the anti-CD20 antibody rituximab with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine and prednisone (prednisolone in some trials). CHOP is the same regimen without rituximab.
R-CHPRituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, prednisoneabbreviation: R-CHOP without vincristine. Polatuzumab vedotin is combined with R-CHP (Pola-R-CHP) in the previously untreated DLBCL indication.
R-ISSRevised International Staging Systemabbreviation: A three-group system that combines the ISS stage with high-risk chromosomal abnormalities found by FISH and the serum LDH level in newly diagnosed multiple myeloma.
R0 resectionendpoint: Surgery after which the pathologist finds no tumour at the resection margins. The margin definition is set by each trial (in CROSS: no tumour within 1 mm of the margins).
R0 resectionendpoint: The share of operations in which the pathologist finds no cancer cells at the cut edge of the removed tissue.
R2Lenalidomide plus rituximababbreviation: A chemotherapy-free combination of lenalidomide and the anti-CD20 antibody rituximab used in follicular and other indolent lymphomas.
R2-ISSSecond Revision of the International Staging Systemabbreviation: A four-group additive scoring system for newly diagnosed multiple myeloma that scores ISS stage, del(17p), high LDH, t(4;14) and gain of chromosome 1q.
Radical hysterectomyterm: An operation that removes the uterus and cervix together with the tissue beside the cervix (parametrium) and the upper part of the vagina, usually with pelvic lymph nodes assessed. It is more extensive than a simple hysterectomy.
Radical nephrectomyterm: Surgical removal of the whole kidney, usually with the surrounding tissue, for kidney cancer.
Radioiodine-refractoryterm: Thyroid cancer that no longer takes up or responds to radioactive iodine (iodine-131) treatment; trials define it in their own eligibility criteria.
Radioligand therapyterm: A radioactive atom attached to a molecule that binds a target on cancer cells, so that radiation is delivered to the cells carrying the target and the tissue around them. Examples here are 177Lu-PSMA-617 (target PSMA) and radium-223 (bone-seeking).
Radiological tumour recurrenceendpoint: Return of hepatocellular carcinoma detected on imaging during follow-up, as a percentage of people followed.
RAIRadioactive iodine (radioiodine, iodine-131)abbreviation: Iodine-131 given by mouth. Thyroid cells and some thyroid cancer cells take up iodine, so the radioactivity can reach them. It is used after thyroid surgery in some people with differentiated thyroid cancer, and cancer that no longer takes up iodine is called radioiodine-refractory.
Rai stagingterm: A clinical staging system for CLL based on blood counts and physical examination (lymphocytosis, enlarged nodes, enlarged spleen or liver, anaemia, thrombocytopenia).
RANOResponse Assessment in Neuro-Oncologyabbreviation: A working group whose imaging-based criteria are used to judge response and progression in brain tumour trials. RANO 2.0 is its 2023 update for high- and low-grade gliomas in adults.
RASKRAS and NRAS genes (RAS family)abbreviation: In colorectal cancer, RAS testing covers the KRAS and NRAS genes. RAS wild-type means that no activating change was found in them.
RAS(ON) inhibitorterm: A drug that blocks RAS proteins while they are in their active, GTP-bound state. Daraxonrasib acts on both mutant and wild-type RAS according to the trial report.
Rate ratioterm: The event rate in one group divided by the rate in another. A value below 1 means a lower rate in the first group. It is not the same as a hazard ratio.
Rate ratioterm: Ratio of the event rate in one group to the rate in another (here, screened to control). It is reported as published and is not a hazard ratio.
RCCRenal cell carcinomaabbreviation: The most common form of kidney cancer, arising from the cells lining the small tubes of the kidney. Clear cell histology was required in most of the trials described here.
RCTRandomized controlled trialabbreviation: A study in which participants are assigned to treatments by chance so the groups can be compared fairly.
RdLenalidomide and dexamethasoneabbreviation: A two-drug myeloma regimen of lenalidomide with dexamethasone; the dexamethasone dose differs between trials.
Reciprocal translocationterm: A rearrangement in which two chromosomes break and swap segments, so that material is exchanged rather than lost.
RECISTResponse Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumorsabbreviation: Standardised rules for measuring whether solid tumours shrink, stay stable or grow on imaging. Versions 1.0 and 1.1 are named in the trials.
RECISTResponse Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumorsabbreviation: A standard set of rules for measuring change in the size of solid tumours on imaging.
Recurrence after resectionendpoint: The proportion of patients whose tumour recurred after transurethral resection, over the follow-up each study reports.
Recurrence of endometrial cancerendpoint: Proportion of randomised patients with a recurrence of endometrial cancer by the end of follow-up, as reported by the study.
Recurrence-free intervalendpoint: Time until the cancer comes back, as defined by the study. The LAP2 non-inferiority comparison was defined on this measure.
Red-blood-cell transfusionendpoint: The proportion of patients who receive at least one red-blood-cell transfusion during treatment.
Reed-Sternberg cellterm: The large, often multinucleated cell that is characteristic of classical Hodgkin lymphoma, named after the pathologists Carl Sternberg and Dorothy Reed.
Referral rate for suspicious nodulesendpoint: Overall proportion referred for further evaluation of a suspicious lung nodule.
Regional lymph node metastasisendpoint: Spread of melanoma to the lymph nodes draining the skin area of the primary tumour, observed after the initial surgery.
Regional nodal disease controlendpoint: The proportion of patients without a recurrence in the regional lymph nodes at a stated time point, as defined by each trial.
Relapse rateProportion of patients with relapseendpoint: Share of patients whose cancer returned during follow-up, or the relapse rate at a stated time point, as each study reports. Also called recurrence rate. Not a time-to-event curve unless a hazard ratio is given.
Relapse riskendpoint: The estimated chance that the leukemia returns after treatment, calculated over time. Studies differ in how relapse is defined and when it is measured.
Relapse riskendpoint: The estimated chance that the leukemia returns after treatment, calculated over time. Studies differ in how relapse is defined and when it is measured.
Relapse with intermediate or poor prognosisRelapse with intermediate- or poor-prognosis diseaseendpoint: Proportion of patients whose relapse was classified as intermediate or poor prognosis at the time of relapse.
Relapsed or refractoryterm: Describes myeloma that has returned after a response (relapsed) or has not responded to, or has progressed during, treatment (refractory). Trials and drug labels define the term differently, for example by the number and type of prior treatments.
Relative survivalterm: An estimate of the percentage of people with a cancer who would be expected to survive the effects of their cancer. It excludes the risk of dying from other causes.
Relative survival after liver cancer diagnosisendpoint: Survival of people diagnosed with primary liver cancer, relative to what would be expected in people of the same age and sex, at stated time points after diagnosis.
Remaining untreated on surveillanceendpoint: Proportion of men still on surveillance, without having received radical treatment, at the stated time.
Remnant ablationterm: Radioiodine given after total thyroidectomy to destroy any thyroid tissue left in the neck.
REMSRisk evaluation and mitigation strategyabbreviation: A US FDA-required programme intended to ensure that a drug's benefits outweigh its risks.
Repeat laparotomyendpoint: Share of patients who needed a further abdominal operation after the first one.
Resection among HCC casesendpoint: The percentage of people diagnosed with hepatocellular carcinoma who had the tumour surgically removed.
Resection rateendpoint: The share of randomised patients whose tumour was removed surgically.
Residual diseaseterm: Tumour left behind after surgery, usually described by the diameter of the largest remaining deposit (for example 1 cm or less) or as complete resection when no visible tumour remains.
Residual disease or recurrence within 2 yearsendpoint: A composite outcome used in the FOxTROT trial: residual disease after surgery or recurrence within two years.
Residual neuropathy greater than grade 1endpoint: The share of patients with neuropathy of grade 2 or higher at the final assessment after treatment.
Residual tumour of 1 cm or lessendpoint: Share of patients in whom the largest tumour left after debulking surgery measured 1 cm or less in diameter.
Response rateendpoint: Proportion of patients whose lymphoma shrank enough to be counted as a response by the criteria a trial used. The report-specific definition (complete plus partial response, or another) is stated per result.
RETRearranged during transfectionabbreviation: A receptor tyrosine kinase. Fusions of the RET gene drive a small subset of non-small cell lung cancers and are targeted by RET inhibitors.
Rete testis invasionInvasion of the rete testisterm: Tumour spread into the rete testis, a network of ducts in the testis, assessed on pathology; a risk factor for relapse in stage I seminoma.
Retroperitoneal sarcomaterm: A sarcoma arising in the retroperitoneum, the space behind the abdominal cavity.
RFARadiofrequency ablationabbreviation: Destruction of tumour tissue with heat produced by radiofrequency current delivered through a needle electrode.
RFRRelapse-free rateendpoint: Proportion of patients without relapse at a stated time after treatment, usually estimated actuarially. Some papers call it relapse-free survival; death without relapse is handled as each paper defines.
RFSRelapse-free survivalendpoint: Time until the cancer returns (and, in many definitions, until death). Definitions vary between trials.
Rhabdomyosarcomaterm: A soft-tissue sarcoma with features of skeletal muscle cells. The Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Studies enrolled patients younger than 21 years.
rhTSHRecombinant human thyrotropinabbreviation: Recombinant human thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin alfa), injected to raise TSH before radioiodine so that thyroid hormone treatment need not be stopped.
RMSTRestricted mean survival timeabbreviation: The average time free of an event within a fixed follow-up window. The difference between two groups is given in days or months and does not assume that the hazard ratio is constant over time.
ROS1abbreviation: A receptor tyrosine kinase. Rearrangements (fusions) of the ROS1 gene drive a small subset of non-small cell lung cancers and are targeted by ROS1 inhibitors.
rPFSRadiographic progression-free survivalendpoint: Time from randomisation until progression is seen on imaging or the person dies from any cause, whichever comes first. Trials differ in how imaging progression is defined and whether an investigator or a blinded central review assesses it.
RPLNDRetroperitoneal lymph node dissectionabbreviation: Surgery that removes the lymph nodes behind the abdominal cavity where testicular germ-cell tumours usually spread first.
RTOGRadiation Therapy Oncology Groupabbreviation: A radiation oncology cooperative group whose scale is widely used to grade the side-effects of radiotherapy.
RTOG grade 2 or worse gastrointestinal toxicityendpoint: Gastrointestinal (bowel) side-effects of grade 2 or worse on the RTOG scale, as recorded by clinicians.
RTOG grade 2 or worse genitourinary toxicityendpoint: Genitourinary (urinary or bladder) side-effects of grade 2 or worse on the RTOG scale, as recorded by clinicians.
S-1Tegafur-gimeracil-oteracil potassiumterm: An oral fluoropyrimidine combining tegafur with two modulating agents, used as adjuvant therapy after gastrectomy in Japan and other East Asian countries.
SABRStereotactic ablative radiotherapyabbreviation: Radiotherapy that delivers high doses to small targets in few sessions, using precise image-guided beams; also called stereotactic body radiotherapy.
Salvage surgeryterm: Surgery done after non-surgical treatment such as chemoradiotherapy, because the cancer persists or returns, rather than as a planned part of the first treatment.
Sarcomaterm: A cancer arising from connective tissue such as bone, cartilage, muscle or fat. Rous sarcoma and osteosarcoma are examples.
sBLASupplemental biologics license applicationabbreviation: An application to the US FDA to add a new indication or other change to an already licensed biologic medicine.
SBRTStereotactic body radiotherapyabbreviation: High-dose radiotherapy delivered in a small number of treatments to a precisely targeted tumour outside the brain. Also called stereotactic ablative radiotherapy (SABR).
SBRTStereotactic body radiotherapyabbreviation: Very precisely targeted external-beam radiotherapy delivered in a small number of high-dose fractions.
SCASegmental chromosome aberrationsabbreviation: Segmental chromosome aberrations: gains or losses of parts of chromosomes, such as 1p and 11q, measured in tumour tissue and used in the 2021 COG risk classifier.
SCLCSmall-cell lung cancerabbreviation: A form of lung cancer made of small cells with a high growth rate, usually divided into limited-stage and extensive-stage disease for treatment planning.
sCR rateStringent complete response rateendpoint: The proportion of people whose myeloma meets the criteria for stringent complete response, a category defined within the International Myeloma Working Group response criteria. Each trial states when it was assessed.
Screening uptake within 6 months of randomizationendpoint: Proportion of women who completed a screening test within 6 months after randomization.
Second primary GCT rateNew germ-cell tumour in the other testisendpoint: Rate of new (second primary) germ-cell tumours, in these trials mainly in the contralateral testis, either as a 5-year event rate or as a count with a hazard ratio.
Second primary malignancyterm: A new, separate cancer that arises after treatment for a first cancer, as distinct from progression of the original cancer.
SEERSurveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Programabbreviation: A programme of the US National Cancer Institute that collects cancer incidence and survival data from population-based cancer registries covering part of the US population. Registry sets differ in size and years (for example SEER 8 and SEER 21), so figures from different sets are not directly comparable.
SEER 21term: A larger set of SEER registries used for the recent, multi-year figures on the SEER Cancer Stat Facts pages (the survival figures on the liver page are labelled SEER 21 excluding IL, 2016-2022). It is a different registry set from SEER 8, so its values are not a continuation of the SEER 8 series.
SEER 8term: The set of eight cancer registries in the US SEER programme that has supplied the long-running trend series (from 1975) on the SEER Cancer Stat Facts pages. It covers only part of the United States population, so its values should be compared only with other SEER 8 values.
SEER 8, SEER 12, SEER 17, SEER 21term: Names for groups of cancer registries in the US SEER Program; the number in the name is the number of registries in the group. The groups cover different years (SEER 8 from 1975, SEER 12 from 1992, SEER 17 and SEER 21 from 2000), so figures from different groups are not directly comparable and should not be subtracted from one another.
SEER Combined Summary Stageterm: A registry staging system that groups the extent of a cancer at diagnosis as localized (confined to the primary site), regional (spread to regional lymph nodes), distant (metastasized) or unknown, used for SEER stage-specific survival.
Segmentectomyterm: Surgical removal of one or more segments of a lung lobe, leaving the rest of the lobe in place.
Self-samplingterm: Collection of a vaginal specimen for HPV testing by the person being screened, rather than a cervical specimen collected by a clinician.
Seminomaterm: A type of germ cell tumour of the testis. Testicular germ cell tumours are managed in two broad groups, seminoma and non-seminoma, because risk classification and first-line treatment depend on histology.
SensitivitySensitivity of a testendpoint: Proportion of patients with viable tumour in whom the test was positive.
Sentinel-node biopsyterm: Removal and microscopic examination of the first lymph node or nodes that drain the area of a primary tumour, used to find out whether cancer cells have reached the regional nodes.
Sentinel-node detection rateendpoint: Proportion of patients (or hemipelves) in whom at least one sentinel lymph node was identified (mapped), as defined by each study.
Sentinel-node false-negative rateendpoint: Proportion of patients with nodal metastases on the reference lymphadenectomy whose sentinel-node procedure did not identify them.
Sentinel-node negative predictive valueendpoint: Proportion of negative sentinel-node results (per patient or per hemipelvis, as defined by each study) that were confirmed as node-negative on the reference lymphadenectomy.
Sentinel-node sensitivityendpoint: Proportion of patients (or hemipelves, depending on the study) with nodal metastases on the reference lymphadenectomy in whom the sentinel-node procedure identified metastatic disease, as defined by each study.
SERDSelective estrogen receptor degraderabbreviation: A drug that binds the estrogen receptor and leads to its breakdown; fulvestrant is an injected SERD and elacestrant an oral one.
Severe adverse events (grade 3 or higher)endpoint: Proportion of patients with at least one adverse event of grade 3 or higher on the grading scale used by the trial (acute, late or overall as stated for each result).
Simple (cystic) hyperplasiaendpoint: Proportion of women with simple (cystic) hyperplasia of the endometrium on biopsy, curettage or hysterectomy specimens during follow-up.
Simple hysterectomyterm: An operation that removes the uterus and cervix without taking the surrounding parametrium; in cancer surgery it is usually paired with a lymph-node assessment.
SIOPInternational Society of Paediatric Oncologyabbreviation: A European-based society whose renal tumour study group runs Wilms tumour trials in which chemotherapy is given before surgery.
SIRStandardised incidence ratioabbreviation: The number of new cases seen in a group divided by the number expected if the group had the same rates as the general population of the same age, sex and period. A value above 1 means more cases than expected.
SIRTSelective internal radiation therapy (radioembolisation)abbreviation: Delivery of radioactive microspheres, here loaded with yttrium-90, into the arteries that supply a liver tumour.
SITCSociety for Immunotherapy of Cancerabbreviation: A professional society that publishes clinical practice guidelines on immunotherapy, including a guideline for renal cell carcinoma.
Skin grafting requiredendpoint: The proportion of patients whose wound could not be closed directly and needed a skin graft.
SLiM CRABterm: Shorthand for the three biomarkers added to the CRAB features in the 2014 IMWG definition: a high proportion of bone marrow plasma cells, a high free light chain ratio, and focal lesions on MRI. The exact thresholds are given in the consensus paper.
SLLSmall lymphocytic lymphomaabbreviation: The lymph-node form of the same disease as chronic lymphocytic leukaemia; trials and labels usually combine them as CLL/SLL.
SLNSentinel lymph nodeabbreviation: The first lymph node or nodes that drain the area of a tumour; sampled by sentinel node biopsy (SLNB) to test whether cancer has spread to the axilla.
Smouldering myelomaSmoldering multiple myelomaterm: A precursor stage of multiple myeloma without myeloma-defining organ damage, usually followed by observation unless it is judged high risk.
SMRStandardised mortality ratioabbreviation: The number of deaths seen in a group divided by the number expected from general-population death rates for the same age, sex and period. A value above 1 means more deaths than expected.
SpecificitySpecificity of a testendpoint: Proportion of patients without viable tumour in whom the test was negative.
Stage I or II at diagnosisendpoint: The proportion of people whose cancer is found at stage I or II rather than a later stage.
Stage I share of liver cancers at diagnosisendpoint: The percentage of all liver cancers diagnosed in a group that were stage I at diagnosis. Higher means more cancers were found at an early stage.
Stage IIC or higher relapse incidenceIncidence of Royal Marsden Hospital stage IIC or higher relapseendpoint: Proportion of patients under surveillance whose relapse was already advanced (Royal Marsden Hospital stage IIC or higher, nodal disease above 5 cm) when found; the TRISST primary outcome at 6 years.
Stage III at nephrectomyendpoint: The share of patients whose tumour is classed as stage III (spread within the abdomen beyond what surgery can remove completely) at the time of nephrectomy. A lower share means more tumours were at a lower stage when removed.
STAMPSpecifically Targeting the ABL Myristoyl Pocketabbreviation: A way of describing inhibitors such as asciminib that bind the myristoyl pocket of the ABL kinase rather than its ATP-binding site.
Stepped-wedge cluster-randomised trialterm: A design in which whole hospitals, not individual patients, are randomised, and each hospital switches from the standard approach to the new approach at a randomly chosen time.
STRIDESingle Tremelimumab Regular Interval Durvalumababbreviation: A treatment schedule in which one priming dose of tremelimumab is given together with durvalumab, and durvalumab then continues at regular intervals.
STSSoft-tissue sarcomaabbreviation: A cancer arising in connective tissue such as muscle or fat. It comprises many subtypes (for example liposarcoma, leiomyosarcoma and epithelioid sarcoma) that differ in behaviour and treatment.
Sublobar resectionterm: Any lung resection that removes less than a whole lobe, such as segmentectomy or wedge resection. Each trial defines the operations it allowed.
Subpart Hterm: The part of the US FDA drug regulations (21 CFR 314) cited in letters both for accelerated approval (21 CFR 314.510) and for approval with restrictions to assure safe use (21 CFR 314.520). The letter's own wording decides which applies.
SUOSociety of Urologic Oncologyabbreviation: A professional society for urologic oncology that co-authors guidelines on non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer with the American Urological Association.
Supratentorialterm: Located in the upper part of the brain, above the tentorium (the fold of membrane that separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum). The Optune indication for newly diagnosed glioblastoma specifies supratentorial tumours.
Surgical complicationsendpoint: Problems arising from an operation, such as infection or delayed wound healing, as reported by each trial.
Survival after HCC diagnosisendpoint: The percentage of people diagnosed with hepatocellular carcinoma who were alive at 1, 3 and 5 years after diagnosis, as reported by the study.
Survival free from recurrence outside the urothelial tractendpoint: Time from randomization until the first local recurrence outside the urothelial tract, distant recurrence, or death, as defined in CheckMate 274 (second primary urothelial cancers are not counted as events).
Surviving patients free of diseaseendpoint: Among patients who are alive, the proportion free of disease at the stated time, as used in a 1997 trial report. It is not the same as disease-free survival, which counts death as an event.
Sustained castration rateSustained testosterone suppression to castrate levelsendpoint: The proportion of men whose testosterone is maintained below the castrate threshold (below 50 ng per deciliter in HERO) through a stated time point, such as 48 weeks.
Sustained clinical complete response at 12 monthsendpoint: The proportion of patients whose clinical complete response is still present 12 months after completing the study treatment, as defined in the study protocol.
SVRSustained virological responseabbreviation: No detectable hepatitis C virus in the blood some months after treatment ends, used as the marker that the infection has been cleared. Exact timing of the test varies between studies.
Swallowing-related quality of life (MDADI)endpoint: Patient-reported swallowing quality of life measured with the MD Anderson Dysphagia Inventory; higher scores mean better swallowing-related quality of life.
SWOGSouthwest Oncology Groupabbreviation: A US cancer clinical trials cooperative group, formerly the Southwest Oncology Group.
Synovial sarcomaterm: A soft-tissue sarcoma, despite its name arising mostly outside joints; it is the indication of the FDA accelerated approval of afamitresgene autoleucel in 2024.
Systematic lymphadenectomyterm: Surgical removal of lymph nodes; in ovarian cancer, systematic lymphadenectomy removes the pelvic and para-aortic (beside the main abdominal artery) nodes.
T-ALLT-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemiaabbreviation: Acute lymphoblastic leukemia arising from T-lymphocyte precursors.
t-AMLTherapy-related acute myeloid leukemiaabbreviation: AML considered to be caused by earlier treatments, for example for another cancer (the EMA's lay description). CPX-351 (Vyxeos) is FDA- and EMA-labelled for newly diagnosed t-AML and for AML-MRC.
T-DM1Trastuzumab emtansineabbreviation: An antibody-drug conjugate that links trastuzumab to the microtubule inhibitor DM1 (emtansine).
T-DXdTrastuzumab deruxtecanabbreviation: A HER2-directed antibody-drug conjugate (fam-trastuzumab deruxtecan-nxki).
Ta and T1term: Stages of non-muscle-invasive bladder tumours: Ta is a non-invasive papillary tumour; T1 is a tumour that has grown into the connective tissue under the lining but not into the muscle.
TACETransarterial chemoembolisationabbreviation: A procedure in which chemotherapy is delivered into the hepatic artery branches that feed a liver tumour, together with a material that blocks the vessel.
TAHTotal abdominal hysterectomyabbreviation: Removal of the uterus and cervix through an open abdominal incision (laparotomy).
TAPDoxorubicin, cisplatin and paclitaxelabbreviation: The three-drug chemotherapy regimen of doxorubicin, cisplatin and paclitaxel, given with growth-factor (filgrastim) support in the GOG trials.
TAP scoreTumour area positivity scoreabbreviation: A PD-L1 scoring method used in the RATIONALE-305 trial and in the European tislelizumab indication for gastric and junctional cancer. It is a different score from the combined positive score (CPS), so thresholds from the two systems cannot be compared directly.
TAR-200term: An intravesical drug-releasing system that delivers gemcitabine into the bladder. Marketed in the US as Inlexzo.
TBITotal body irradiationabbreviation: Radiation to the whole body, used before stem cell transplantation to suppress the immune system and eradicate remaining leukemia cells.
TCGAThe Cancer Genome Atlasabbreviation: A US programme that profiled the genomes of tumours from many cancer types and made the data public.
TERT promoter mutationterm: A change in the control region of the TERT gene, which encodes part of the enzyme telomerase. In glioblastoma, such mutations correlated with higher TERT messenger RNA expression in the 2013 TCGA analysis.
TFFSTreatment failure-free survivalendpoint: In LIBRETTO-531, the time until disease progression, discontinuation of treatment because of treatment-related adverse events, or death, whichever happened first.
TFRTreatment-free remissionendpoint: Staying off tyrosine kinase inhibitor treatment while keeping a molecular response. Each study sets its own entry criteria, time point and definition of relapse (for example loss of major molecular response), so TFR percentages should be read within a study and not compared across studies.
TGCTTesticular germ cell tumourabbreviation: A tumour of the testis arising from germ cells; the main histological groups are seminoma and non-seminoma.
THPTaxane, trastuzumab and pertuzumababbreviation: A first-line regimen for HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer combining a taxane with trastuzumab and pertuzumab, used as the control arm in DESTINY-Breast09.
Thyroglobulinterm: A protein made by thyroid cells. After total thyroidectomy it is measured in blood as a marker of remaining or returning thyroid tissue, and antibodies to it can interfere with the result.
TI-CEPaclitaxel and ifosfamide followed by high-dose carboplatin and etoposideabbreviation: A high-dose chemotherapy regimen with stem-cell support: two cycles of paclitaxel and ifosfamide to mobilise stem cells, then high-dose carboplatin and etoposide.
TILTumour-infiltrating lymphocytesabbreviation: Immune T cells found inside a tumour. In TIL therapy they are removed with tumour tissue, expanded in a laboratory and returned to the same person by infusion.
Time to death, oesophageal adenocarcinoma or high-grade dysplasiaendpoint: Time until the first of death from any cause, oesophageal adenocarcinoma or high-grade dysplasia: the composite primary endpoint of the AspECT trial.
Time to discontinuation due to adverse eventsendpoint: The time from starting treatment until treatment is stopped because of adverse events. A hazard ratio below 1 means discontinuation for this reason happened later or less often in the first-named group.
Time to new treatmentendpoint: Time from randomisation (or the start of observation) until a new anticancer treatment, such as chemotherapy or radiotherapy, is started. It measures how long a person stays free of treatment, not survival.
Time to next interventionendpoint: The time from randomisation to the start of the next anticancer treatment or intervention; reported, for example, as a key secondary endpoint in the INDIGO trial of vorasidenib in grade 2 glioma.
Time to radiologic progressionendpoint: Time from randomization until scans show that the cancer has progressed. Unlike progression-free survival, deaths without progression are not counted as events.
Time to recurrenceendpoint: Time from randomisation until the cancer comes back. Deaths without recurrence are handled according to each trial's definition.
Time to symptomatic brain metastasesendpoint: Time from randomisation until brain metastases that cause symptoms are diagnosed; imaging of the brain is done when a symptom suggests them.
Time to symptomatic progressionendpoint: Time from randomization until symptoms of the cancer worsen by a predefined amount. The exact definition differs between trials.
Time to treatment failureendpoint: Time until treatment stops because the cancer persists, recurs or progresses, as the study defines it.
Timely surgeryendpoint: In the NICHE-2 study, surgery not delayed by more than two weeks beyond the plan because of treatment-related toxic events.
TIPPaclitaxel, ifosfamide, cisplatinabbreviation: A salvage combination of paclitaxel, ifosfamide and cisplatin (paclitaxel is abbreviated T in this regimen name).
Tissue-agnosticterm: Describes an indication or trial defined by a molecular alteration, for example an NTRK or RET gene fusion, rather than by the tumour's site of origin.
TKDTyrosine kinase domainabbreviation: The part of a kinase protein that carries out its enzymatic activity. FLT3 point mutations in this domain are a second type of FLT3 mutation in acute myeloid leukemia.
TKDTyrosine kinase domainabbreviation: The part of a receptor protein, such as HER2, that carries the enzyme activity targeted by tyrosine kinase inhibitors.
TKITyrosine kinase inhibitorabbreviation: A medicine that blocks the activity of a tyrosine kinase enzyme such as BCR-ABL1. Imatinib, dasatinib, nilotinib, bosutinib and ponatinib bind the ATP-binding site; asciminib binds the ABL myristoyl pocket.
TLHTotal laparoscopic hysterectomyabbreviation: Removal of the uterus and cervix through small abdominal incisions using a camera and long instruments.
TMETotal mesorectal excisionabbreviation: Surgical removal of the affected part of the rectum together with the surrounding fatty tissue (the mesorectum), which holds the lymph nodes, taken out intact by following the plane around the mesorectum.
TME-free survivalendpoint: Survival without a total mesorectal excision, used in organ-preservation studies in rectal cancer; in the OPRA trial it was the measure of organ preservation. The exact event definition is given in each study report.
TNBCTriple-negative breast cancerabbreviation: Breast cancer whose cells lack estrogen receptors, progesterone receptors and HER2 overexpression or amplification.
TNMTumour, node, metastasisabbreviation: A classification that describes the anatomic extent of a cancer by the size or spread of the primary tumour (T), involvement of regional lymph nodes (N) and distant metastasis (M).
TNTTotal neoadjuvant therapyabbreviation: An approach that gives chemotherapy as well as radiotherapy (or chemoradiotherapy) before rectal cancer surgery, rather than giving the chemotherapy after surgery. The order and amount of treatment differ between trials.
TORSTransoral robotic surgeryabbreviation: Removal of a throat tumour through the mouth using a robotic surgical system, without an external incision.
Total thyroidectomyterm: Surgery that removes the whole thyroid gland. Lobectomy removes one lobe only.
Toxic death rateendpoint: The proportion of patients who die from the toxic effects of treatment, as each trial defines it.
TP53abbreviation: A gene whose product p53 helps cells respond to DNA damage. Mutation or deletion of TP53 in CLL cells is linked to a poor response to chemotherapy.
TPMTThiopurine methyltransferaseabbreviation: An enzyme involved in breaking down thiopurine drugs such as mercaptopurine. Some people inherit a defective version.
TPSTumour proportion scoreabbreviation: The percentage of viable tumour cells that show PD-L1 staining on immunohistochemistry. Cut-offs (for example 1% or 50%) are used to define PD-L1 groups, and the antibody and assay can differ between trials.
Traditional approvalterm: A US FDA approval based on clinical benefit or a validated surrogate endpoint, as opposed to accelerated approval. FDA letters also call it regular approval. An accelerated approval can be converted to traditional approval once the confirmatory requirement is met.
Treatment failureendpoint: Proportion of patients with treatment failure at a stated time point, as defined by the trial. The 1976 Milan abstract uses the term without defining it here.
Treatment failure-free at 24 weeksendpoint: The proportion of patients who had not had treatment failure by week 24 after randomisation, as defined by the trial.
Treatment within 6 months of CIN2+ detectionendpoint: Number of women treated within 6 months after CIN2 or worse was detected.
Treatment-related complicationsendpoint: Proportion of women with complications attributed to treatment, graded by the trial's toxicity scale; PORTEC-1 reported this for any grade.
Treatment-related grade 3 adverse eventsendpoint: Proportion of patients with a grade 3 adverse event attributed to treatment, graded as each trial specifies.
Treatment-related grade 4 adverse eventsendpoint: Proportion of patients with a grade 4 adverse event attributed to treatment, graded as each trial specifies.
Treatment-related mortalityendpoint: The probability of death caused by treatment complications rather than by the cancer, by a given time.
Trifluridine-tipiracilAlso known as TAS-102 or Lonsurfterm: An oral combination of the nucleoside analogue trifluridine and tipiracil, which prevents trifluridine from being broken down.
Trimodality therapyterm: Chemotherapy and radiotherapy given before surgery, followed by surgery: three types of treatment in one plan.
TRMTreatment-related mortalityabbreviation: Death caused by treatment complications, such as infection, rather than by the leukemia.
TRMBTreatment-related morbidityendpoint: A co-primary endpoint of the HD21 trial: the share of patients with a predefined set of serious treatment-related toxic effects during primary chemotherapy and the 30 days after the last dose. A lower rate is better.
TRUS biopsyTransrectal ultrasonography-guided biopsyabbreviation: Transrectal ultrasonography-guided prostate biopsy.
TSH suppressionterm: Treatment with levothyroxine at a dose that lowers serum thyroid-stimulating hormone below the usual range, used after thyroid cancer surgery. The target level differs by risk group and guideline.
TTFieldsTumour treating fieldsabbreviation: Alternating electric fields delivered by a wearable device (Optune) as a treatment for glioblastoma. In the United States the device is approved through the FDA premarket approval pathway for devices, not as a drug.
TTFieldsTumour treating fieldsabbreviation: Low-intensity alternating electric fields delivered through arrays placed on the skin by a wearable device, used together with chemotherapy in the PANOVA-3 trial.
TTNTTime to next treatmentendpoint: Time from the start of a study treatment until the next anti-leukaemia treatment is started. In BRUIN CLL-321 the abstract reports it as time to next treatment or death.
TTPTime to progressionendpoint: Time from randomization until the cancer progresses. Unlike progression-free survival, deaths without progression are not counted as events.
Tumour virusterm: A virus that can cause cancer. Rous sarcoma virus, reported in chickens in 1911, was the first one recognised as such.
TURBTTransurethral resection of bladder tumourabbreviation: Transurethral resection of bladder tumour: removal of bladder tumours through the urethra with a cystoscope, used for diagnosis and treatment.
Tyrosine kinaseterm: An enzyme that adds phosphate groups to tyrosine residues on proteins, a step in cell signalling. Abnormal tyrosine kinases can drive cell growth.
U.S. Mortalityterm: National mortality data collected and maintained by the US National Center for Health Statistics, which the SEER Cancer Stat Facts pages use for death rates. These rates cover deaths from all of the United States and do not come from the SEER registries.
UICCUnion for International Cancer Controlabbreviation: An international organisation of cancer societies and institutions that publishes the TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours.
UKCTOCSUK Collaborative Trial of Ovarian Cancer Screeningabbreviation: A randomised trial in the United Kingdom that assigned postmenopausal women aged 50 to 74 years to annual multimodal screening, annual transvaginal ultrasound screening, or no screening, and followed them through national registries for deaths from ovarian or tubal cancer.
ULNUpper limit of normalabbreviation: The top of the normal range for a laboratory test, used to express how far a marker such as LDH is raised.
UMBRELLA SIOP-RTSG 2016term: The protocol of the Renal Tumour Study Group of the International Society of Paediatric Oncology for diagnosing and treating childhood kidney tumours, with integrated biomarker and imaging research.
Unable to work normally at 4 weeksInability to carry out normal work four weeks after starting treatmentendpoint: Share of patients reporting on a symptom diary card that they could not carry out their normal work four weeks after starting radiotherapy.
Undetectable MRD rateendpoint: The proportion of patients whose measurable residual disease (MRD) is below a stated threshold, often fewer than 1 CLL cell in 10,000 leukocytes, on a sensitive test such as flow cytometry or next-generation sequencing. Tissue (blood or bone marrow), assay and time point differ between trials.
Union Registerterm: The European Commission's public register of authorised medicines for human use, which lists each Commission decision and procedure for a product with its date.
Urinary incontinenceendpoint: Involuntary leakage of urine, reported in surgical trials as the proportion of participants affected within a stated period after the operation. Definitions and grading differ between trials.
Urinary retentionendpoint: Difficulty emptying the bladder after an operation, reported as the proportion of participants affected within a stated period. Definitions differ between trials.
Urothelial carcinomaterm: Cancer that starts in the urothelium, the lining of the bladder and the rest of the urinary tract. It is the most common type of bladder cancer, and older texts call it transitional cell carcinoma.
USPSTFUS Preventive Services Task Forceabbreviation: An independent US panel that issues graded recommendations on preventive services, including cancer screening.
Uterine serous carcinomaterm: A high-grade type of endometrial cancer. About 30% of cases overexpress HER2 according to the trial authors, which is why it was studied with trastuzumab.
VACVincristine, dactinomycin and cyclophosphamideabbreviation: A chemotherapy combination used in the Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Studies. VA is vincristine and dactinomycin; VAI replaces cyclophosphamide with ifosfamide; VIE is vincristine, ifosfamide and etoposide.
Vaccine efficacyterm: The percentage reduction in disease among vaccinated people compared with unvaccinated people in a trial.
VACURGVeterans Administration Cooperative Urological Research Groupabbreviation: Veterans Administration Cooperative Urological Research Group.
Vaginal and pelvic recurrenceendpoint: Proportion of women with a recurrence in the vagina or pelvis over the follow-up period of a trial, reported without a fixed time point.
Vaginal recurrenceendpoint: Return of the cancer at the top of the vagina (the vaginal vault) after hysterectomy. In the PORTEC trials it is reported as a cumulative incidence that accounts for competing risks.
VBTVaginal brachytherapyabbreviation: Radiotherapy delivered from a source placed inside the vagina, treating the top of the vagina, which the PORTEC-2 authors describe as the most frequent site of recurrence after surgery for intermediate-risk disease.
VEGFVascular endothelial growth factorabbreviation: A signalling protein that promotes the growth of new blood vessels, including those that supply tumours. Bevacizumab is an antibody that binds it.
VEGFRVascular endothelial growth factor receptorabbreviation: Cell-surface receptors for vascular endothelial growth factor, which drive blood-vessel growth; targeted by drugs such as fruquintinib and regorafenib.
VEGFR TKIVascular endothelial growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitorabbreviation: A tyrosine kinase inhibitor taken by mouth that blocks signalling through vascular endothelial growth factor receptors, which tumours use to build blood vessels; sunitinib, sorafenib, pazopanib and cabozantinib act in part this way.
VeIPVinblastine, ifosfamide, cisplatinabbreviation: A salvage combination of vinblastine, ifosfamide and cisplatin.
VGPRVery good partial responseabbreviation: A depth-of-response category in myeloma between partial response and complete response. Each study sets its own definition, based on reduction of myeloma protein.
VHLVon Hippel-Lindauabbreviation: Name of a gene (VHL) and of the inherited syndrome (VHL disease) in which people can develop tumours in several organs, including kidney cancers. The gene is also altered in many sporadic clear cell kidney cancers.
VIPEtoposide (VP-16), ifosfamide, cisplatinabbreviation: A chemotherapy combination of etoposide, ifosfamide and cisplatin, used in salvage chemotherapy and as the standard-dose component of the high-dose regimen in EORTC 30974.
VMPBortezomib, melphalan and prednisoneabbreviation: Melphalan plus prednisone with the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib added.
Volume CTterm: Low-dose CT screening in which lung nodules are assessed on the basis of their volume rather than only their diameter.
VRdBortezomib, lenalidomide and dexamethasoneabbreviation: A three-drug myeloma regimen of bortezomib, lenalidomide and dexamethasone. Some trials write it RVD.
Watch and waitterm: Regular monitoring without anti-leukaemia treatment until symptoms, cytopenias or other criteria indicate that treatment is needed.
Watch-and-waitterm: A strategy of regular endoscopy, examination and imaging, instead of immediate surgery, for people with rectal cancer who have a clinical complete response (or near-complete response) after neoadjuvant treatment. Surgery is used later if the tumour regrows.
Watchful waitingterm: Follow-up in which treatment is given for symptoms or documented progression rather than with curative intent; the term used in SPCG-4.
WBCWhite blood cell countabbreviation: The number of white cells per volume of blood. In childhood ALL the count at diagnosis is one of the factors used to assign risk.
Wilms tumourNephroblastomaterm: The most common kidney cancer in children, named after the German surgeon Max Wilms. North American groups usually operate first and then give chemotherapy adapted to stage and histology; European SIOP groups give chemotherapy before surgery.
Worsening-free survivalendpoint: Time until progression to stage T2 or higher, or use of cystectomy, systemic chemotherapy or radiation therapy, as defined in the study that reported it.